To identify the combinations of the economic and social aspects related to female entrepreneurship in OECD countries, we carried out a cross-national analysis of female entrepreneurship using fsQCA methodology. We analyzed 2015 data from 29 OECD countries, covering different geographical areas. Data were retrieved from three databases (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, Country Risk Score, and Glass Ceiling Index) and the relationship between entrepreneurship by gender and the conditions in a country were studied, especially those socially related to gender under female labor working conditions. The results show that the combination of good country risk score conditions and the low presence of women in power positions is related to high female entrepreneurship and low gender labor-force gap. By contrast, low female entrepreneurship is reached through a combination of high gender labor-force and wage gaps.

Introduction

Research on entrepreneurship has been recently growing (Shepherd, Douglas, & Shanley, 2000). The field of entrepreneurship is defined as the scholarly examination of how, by whom, and with what effects opportunities lead to creating future goods and services (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). However, although many researchers examined this area of knowledge, there is still room to shed more light on this matter (Poggesi, Mari, & De Vita, 2016; Unger, Rauch, Frese, & Rosenbusch, 2011). First, entrepreneurship is defined as the resource and process whereby individuals utilize opportunities on the market through the creation of new firms (Naudé, ۲۰۱۰; O’Connor, 2013). Entrepreneurs are individuals who set up a business or businesses, taking on some financial risks in the hope of profit. They thus contribute to economic growth, productivity, and renewal of productive and social networks (Crecente-Romero, Giménez-Baldazo, & Rivera-Galicia, 2016; Mas-Tur, Pinazo, Tur-Porcar, & Sánchez-Masferrer, 2015). There are different motivations to undertake an entrepreneurial venture (Kirkwood, 2009; Segal, Borgia, & Schoenfeld, 2005; Shane, Locke, & Collins, 2003). Considering the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor’s (GEM) definition of motivation (Hessels, Van Gelderen, & Thurik, 2008; Levie & Autio, 2008; Reynolds, Bygrave, Autio, Cox, & Hay, 2002), entrepreneurs can be opportunity-driven, that is, they decide to create a business because they perceive sectorial, strategic, or market opportunities or necessitydriven, that is, they do not have a better work option or are unable to sustain themselves financially (Hytti, Linstead, & Hytti, 2005). Factors influencing entrepreneurs can be different, depending on their underlying motivation (Devece, Peris-Ortiz, & Rueda-Armengot, 2016; Kirkwood, 2009; Verheul, Van Stel, & Thurik, 2006), and can also differ by country (Crecente-Romero et al., 2016) or even depending on the gender of the entrepreneur (Minniti & Naudé, ۲۰۱۰). The literature on gender entrepreneurship, employment, and selfemployment (Berner, Gomez, & Knorringa, 2012; Peredo & McLean, 2006; Seelos & Mair, 2005) is significant in this respect, together with sustainable finance, business funding, and economic aspects (CervellóRoyo, Moya-Clemente, & Ribes-Giner, 2015; Garikipati, 2008; Kabeer, 2001; Ngo & Wahhaj, 2012; Weber & Ahmad, 2014). However, limited studies exist on the economic, financial and social conditions of a country in terms of entrepreneurship determinants, especially under a gender framework. The scarcity of reliable and valid data still represents a clear obstacle to understanding the challenges to women’s entrepreneurship and their impact on economic growth. The creation of systematic knowledge about women’s entrepreneurship is therefore needed (Veras Zoeller, 2015). Therefore, it might be interesting to study in more detail the potential relation between entrepreneurship and gender across countries.