۱- Introduction

۲- Material and methods

۳- Definition of physical exercise

۴- Immune system modulation by the practice of physical exercise

۵- Anti-inflammatory effects of physical exercise

۶- Physical exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention for neuroprotection

۷- Physical exercise and neopterin

۸- Physical exercise and inflammation-induced pain: Relevance of BH4

۹- Summary and future directions

References

Abstract

A wide array of molecular pathways has been investigated during the past decade in order to understand the mechanisms by which the practice of physical exercise promotes neuroprotection and reduces the risk of developing communicable and non-communicable chronic diseases. While a single session of physical exercise may induce a transient imbalance of cell homeostasis, repeated physical exercise sessions will improve immunosurveillance and immunocompetence. Additionally, immune cells from the central nervous system will acquire an anti-inflammatory phenotype, protecting central functions from age-induced cognitive decline. This review highlights the exercise-induced anti-inflammatory effect on the prevention or treatment of common chronic clinical and experimental settings. It also suggests the use of pterins in biological fluids as sensitive biomarkers to follow the anti-inflammatory effect of physical exercise.

Introduction

The practice of physical activity and/or physical exercise is an efficient free -drug strategy for the prevention and treatment of several chronic diseases. A great body of scientific evidence has contributed to establish a positive correlation between a physically active lifestyle and health benefits [1]. According to the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, individuals affected by chronic diseases should practice a minimum of 150 mi n per week of moderate -intensity exercise, or at least 75 min per week of vigorous -intensity aerobic physical activity to improve health [2] . Additional health benefits can also be promoted by performing muscle -strengthening activities involving all main muscle groups at least twice a week [2] . Due to enhanced musculoskeletal function, cardiorespiratory and metabolic health, sleep, pain management, cognition, learning, memory and more, the practice of physical exercise represents a non-pharmacological primary clinical tool for the prevention of many diseases whose physiopathology is linked to acute or sustained immune system activation [3 –۵]. In general repeated moderate intensity exercise enhances the immune function response, reinforces the antioxidative capacity, reduces oxidative stress, and increases the efficiency of energy generation , therefore reducing the incidence of inflammatory diseases [6,7] . Acute bouts of physical exercise also regulate the immune response, i.e. by transiently redistributing immune cells to peripheral tissues, resulting in a heightened state of immun ocompetence [8] .