Abstract

Although determinants of life satisfaction in older adults have been well documented, research has to date failed to fully address the experience of older adults living in places with different levels of urbanization. Furthermore, there are conflictive findings regarding the type of residence environment that offers the greatest benefits for the wellbeing of older adults. Our study proposes an integrative research model to determine the nature of the relationships between loneliness, self-esteem and life satisfaction, with a particular focus on the living environment (rural-urban) of the older adults. Using a cross-sectional survey design volunteers (aged 60+) from rural (n = 198) and urban (n = 198) in Galicia (Spain) completed a questionnaire. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used to test the relationships between loneliness, self-esteem and life satisfaction and multigroup analysis was performed to analyse the existence of differences in the relationships based on the area of residence of older adults. We found that higher levels of loneliness were a significant predictor of reduced life satisfaction and reduced self-esteem. Self-esteem not only increases life satisfaction, but also reduces the negative impact loneliness may have on it. Where the older adults lived had a significant effect on the relationships between loneliness, self-esteem and life satisfaction. The relationships were stronger for older adults living in urban areas. Differentiated policy initiatives should be considered, depending on the area of residence in order to increase the life satisfaction of older adults.

Introduction

In recent decades, the European Union (EU) has experienced two parallel processes: population aging and urbanization. The urban population rose from 58 % in 1960 to over 75 % in 2022 [1]. The proportion of population aged 65 and over stands at almost 21 % and forecasts suggest that in 2050, the old-age dependency ratio will exceed 52 % [2,3]. Within this process, a significant number of older adults live in urban areas, many of whom have relocated from rural environments, whilst others remain in their familiar surroundings in line with what is known as “aging in place”. In any case, the residential environment, whether rural or urban, poses various challenges for older adults [4].

Older adults’ quality of life is influenced by a large number of factors that range from social support and relationship networks to the environment, residence conditions, financial resources, older adults’ degree of activity, autonomy and independence when making decisions, as well as physical and mental health [5,6]. In fact, the World Health Organization’s quality-of-life scale, known as the WHOQOL-BREF questionnaire, includes 26 questions grouped into four domains: physical health, psychological health, social relationships and environmental health [7,8]. The environmental dimension of the WHOQOL-BREF questionnaire includes items designed to identify aspects including not only the home environment, opportunities for acquiring new information and skills and for recreation, the physical environment and transport, but also health and social care, security and, of course, financial resources.

Conclusions

The main aim of this study was to examine the association between loneliness, self-esteem and life satisfaction among older adults in Galicia (Spain), with a particular focus on the (rural-urban) residence environment of the older adults. The data support an association between these variables in the predicted direction and the results provide strong support to the theoretical model proposed.

Older adults’ life satisfaction depends significantly on loneliness. The greater the perceived loneliness, the lower the degree of life satisfaction. Loneliness also impacts significantly and negatively on self-esteem. In turn, self-esteem has a positive and significant influence on life satisfaction. Self-esteem not only increases life satisfaction, but it also reduced the negative impact of loneliness on life satisfaction.

Where older adults live had a significant effect on the relationship between loneliness, self-esteem and life satisfaction, which was stronger for older adults living in urban areas. These results may be partly explained by the slightly higher means for loneliness reported among urban older adults. Reported self-esteem mitigated the impact of loneliness on life satisfaction in older adults living in the city.