Abstract

This research project developed a framework for assessing digital transformation (DT) maturity in large government-owned corporations (GOCs), focusing on integrating building information modelling (BIM), digital engineering (DE) practices, value of information, data integration aspects, and critical information management competencies, relating to asset management, asset delivery, and asset performance. Recognising DT’s strategic importance in asset lifecycle management, researchers created a practical DT maturity assessment tool applied to an Australian GOC. The framework and Excel assessment tool outline DT maturity across seven categories and 56 indicators, using the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) to rank indicators based on expert input. The tool enables straightforward data input and DT maturity evaluation, helping organisations understand their current DT status and set improvement targets. Workshops with DT professionals validated the tool’s effectiveness through a case study, offering insights into DT maturity levels and a roadmap for technological integration and data-driven decision-making. The research highlights DT’s role in enhancing efficiency, innovation, and safety, emphasising the need for strategic alignment with organisational objectives.

Introduction

The building and infrastructure industries are gradually transitioning towards building information modelling (BIM) as an object-based digital representation of an asset’s physical and functional characteristics [1], [2] and digital engineering (DE) practices to enable more productive methods of planning, designing, constructing, operating, and maintaining assets, using digital processes [3]. As detailed later in the paper, “digital” encompasses approaches, tools and technologies such as BIM and DE together with data science, the Internet of Things (IoT), and AI solutions integrated to digitise assets throughout the lifecycle. Asset owners recognise the importance of digital transformation (DT) in delivering and managing assets [4], as it offers many benefits throughout the asset lifecycle and can enhance efficiency, value for money, productivity, innovation, and safety.

1.1. DT of large infrastructure asset ownersGovernments and government-owned corporations (GOCs) are typically owners and operators of large assets, such as buildings, infrastructure, and other asset holdings across the spectrum of services. Governments and industries must transition from ‘digital by exception’ towards ‘digital by default’ [5], [6]. The infrastructure sector should adopt an evidence-based approach to infrastructure planning, delivery, and operations, including BIM, DE, embedded sensors, and digital asset management [7]. DT offers significant potential value and benefits to government agencies that manage assets across the whole-of-asset lifecycle. DT can assist in strategic investing and partnering with local governments and industry to deliver more benefits, including [8]:

Conclusion

The dynamic evolution of the building and infrastructure sectors towards digitalised practices underscores the growing importance of asset owners engaging in comprehensive DT. This research project has developed a multifaceted framework for assessing DT maturity tailored to the needs of large GOCs.

The existing assessment tools and methods have been reviewed for suitability in assessing the DT in whole-of-life asset owner organisations. The reviewed tools offer varying assessment scopes, including a capability assessment, maturity assessment, and benchmarking. The need and potential benefit of a new maturity assessment tool that would balance assessment accuracy and completion efficiency were established based on the shortcomings and limitations of existing DT maturity tools and methods. The key contributions of the new DT maturity assessment framework and tool developed by the research team include (i) a holistic view on the assessment of how well organisations use data and digital solutions, focusing on BIM capabilities, the value of information, data integration aspects, components of the smart city concept and critical information management competencies; (ii) an evidence-based scoring approach including assigning weight to various assessment indicators based on their importance to ensure the accuracy of the assessment; (iii) a multiperspective assessment allowing for more accurate organisation-wide analysis; (iv) short-term and long-term recommendations based on the current and target levels gap to facilitate performance improvement while realising the benefits and value of getting to each maturity level.

Abstract

This study aims to evaluate B2B branding in a global context by constructing a framework for future research, practitioners, and brand managers operating in international B2B markets. Employing co-citation and text-mining techniques to investigate 281 articles, we identified five knowledge fields that map the intellectual structure of this domain: brand equity, industrial branding, brand value, global brand leadership, and relationship marketing. We also gained a deeper understanding of the important topics in global B2B branding literature. This framework not only highlights gaps and challenges in conceptual and methodological approaches but also challenges and extends existing academic discourse. It offers a systematic approach to strategic decision-making and the overhaul of marketing practices, guiding practitioners to navigate the complexities of global B2B branding. Our critical analysis sets a new agenda for future research, calling for a more rigorous and holistic advancement in the field of global B2B branding.

Introduction

The global corporate landscape has seen significant expansion in business-to-business (B2B) branding, with giants like Microsoft and IBM demonstrating the critical role of effective branding in achieving competitive advantages ( McKinsey, 2022 ). Effective B2B branding transcends the creation of memorable logos or slogans; it strategically positions companies in ways that resonate globally with business customers, influencing their decision-making processes by establishing trust, demonstrating value, and uniquely highlighting a company’s offerings ( Cartwright et al., 2021 ; Li et al., 2018 ). This strategic influence helps secure and maintain lasting business relationships, differentiates products and services in a competitive market, and enhances a company’s reputation and credibility internationally. Such branding not only justifies premium pricing by emphasizing quality, innovation, and service but also fosters customer loyalty and facilitates market expansion. Loyal customers, who perceive the brand’s offerings as superior, are less likely to switch to competitors and more inclined to advocate for the brand, thus amplifying its competitive advantage. Moreover, recent research by BCG (Boston Consulting Group) and Google underscores the impact of brand marketing in the B2B sector as equal to, or greater than, that in the consumer sector, with well-branded companies achieving greater returns on marketing investments and enhanced audience engagement ( Sheerin et al., 2021 ).

Recent research highlights the critical role of robust global B2B branding in enhancing the decision-making confidence of industrial purchasers ( Anaza et al., 2023 ). Strong global brands not only suggest superior product qualities but also stimulate increased purchasing interest due to their associative aspects ( Brown et al., 2011 ). The complexities inherent in organizational buying models necessitate that B2B brands provide decision-makers with both a rapid and emotionally resonant pathway to finalize their purchase decisions ( Blankson & Kalafatis, 2019 ; Mogaji et al., 2023 ). The dynamic and multifaceted nature of B2B branding has spurred extensive scholarly and practical exploration, resulting in a substantial body of literature ( Deng et al., 2021 ; Zhou et al., 2021 ). However, managers still grapple with significant challenges in implementing and integrating global B2B branding strategies effectively within their organizations. One major difficulty lies in assessing the impact of these strategies and making informed decisions that capitalize on their potential value, a process complicated by the varied dynamics of global markets ( Liu et al., 2020 ).

Results: Mapping the Landscape of Global B2B Branding

In this section, we first present the findings of two co-citation analyses both MDS and HCA, focusing on the identification of five distinct knowledge fields that map the landscape of global B2B branding literature. These knowledge fields are brand equity, industrial branding, brand value, global brand leadership, and relationship marketing (see summary of five knowledge fields in Table 2 ). Next, we present the findings of text-mining analysis.

Abstract

This research draws on social identity theory and social role theory of gender stereotypes to investigate the role of brand gender personality (masculine and feminine) on generating brand warmth and competence, and how consumers’ agentic and communal values condition the effects of brand stereotypes on consumer–brand identification. The theoretical model is tested via two different studies. In the first study (N = 490), 21 brands across different product categories are used to test the theoretical model. Then, a second study (N = 469) corroborates the previously identified relationships and further shows that the effect of brand stereotypes on consumer–brand identification is moderated by agentic and communal motivations. The present study contributes to research on brand stereotyping while providing managerial insights that can be used to enhance the relationship between brands and consumers.

Introduction

A multitude of reports published by Deloitte, Havas Group, McKinsey & Company and Consumer Brands Association underscore a growing expectation gap in consumer-brand relationships. Consumers increasingly perceive that promises made by brands are unfulfilled, leading to a sense of distrust. In their pursuit of competency, transparency and honesty they perceive that brands are falling short (McKinsey & Company, 2021). Additionally, the global survey Meaningful Brands (2021) by Havas Media1 reveals that brand meaningfulness has reached an all-time low, contributing to the escalating mistrust in brands.

In response to this heightened disaffection and rising scepticism, brand management has been promoted under the Brands as Intentional Agents Framework (BIAF). This framework claims that consumers’ impressions of brand warmth (worthy intentions) and competence (ability) are crucial in shaping interactions with brands (Kervyn et al., 2022). Building on the work of Diamantopoulos et al., 2021, Xue et al., 2020, Kervyn et al., 2012, and Kolbl et al. (2020), it is evident that both warmth and competence significantly influence brand admiration, emotions, value perceptions, and purchase intentions. Given the intensified scrutiny on brands, understanding the formation of these brand stereotypes (warmth and competence) and their role in building robust bonds with consumers has become imperative (Rather et al., 2022).

While antecedents of brand warmth and competence, along with their consequences, have been identified in previous research within the BIAF (see Appendix A for a summary), three major gaps persist. This study aims to address them by integrating insights from Social Role Theory and Social Identification Theory to enrich the BIAF.

General discussion and implications

While previous research has extensively explored the antecedents and consequences of brand warmth and competence stereotypes (see Appendix A), our study is the first to empirically examine how these stereotypes are influenced by gendered brand personality and how consumers’ agentic and communal values serve as a boundary condition in the link between brand stereotypes and consumer-brand identification.

6.1. Theoretical contributions
In line with social role theory of gender stereotypes, our study contributes to branding literature by establishing masculine and feminine brand personality as antecedents of brands stereotypes. This relationship is demonstrated for both real (Study 1) and fictitious brands (Study 2). This focus on gendered brand personality adds theoretical value by addressing gaps in current knowledge related to the impact of consumer gender (Eagly and Wood, 2012, Fiske et al., 2007) and gendered brand cues (Hess & Melnyk, 2016) on stereotypes. Our findings reveal the asymmetrical importance of the two gendered personalities in influencing brand stereotypes, aligning with prior research that evidences that masculine traits are more diagnostically relevant than femininity traits (see Hess and Melnyk, 2016, Vacas de Carvalho et al., 2020). Notably, our results show that gendered brand personality effects hold over and above the perceived hedonic and utilitarian product properties, which have previously been linked to brand warmth and competence (Peter & Ponzi, 2018).

Abstract

Brand activism (BA) has attracted substantial attention due to consumers’ rising expectations for brands to address social and political issues. However, empirical research on consumers’ understanding of activist brands (i.e., brands that engage in brand activism) remains limited, mainly due to the absence of a valid measurement tool. To fill this gap, the authors introduce a two-dimensional consumer Activist Brand Perception (ABP) scale with eight items. Drawing from extensive literature analysis, relevant manifestations of BA are identified as the foundation for the scale. Through a rigorous scale development process involving qualitative and quantitative assessment, the (ABP) scale emerges as a reliable instrument to capture consumer perceptions of activist brands, enabling researchers to comprehend how consumers view activist brands.

Introduction

Consumer demand for companies to take a stand and publicly express their views on a variety of controversial social, environmental, economic, or political topics is growing (Edelman, , 2021, Manfredi-Sánchez, 2019). Given such expectations, an increasing number of brands have recently begun expressing their opinions on a range of diverse issues, spanning from racial discrimination to COVID lockdowns and environmental problems (Bhagwat et al., 2020, Korschun et al., 2020, Shortall, 2019). Prominent brands, including Hobby Lobby and Ben & Jerry’s, are known for their Brand Activism (BA) and increasingly align with pivotal social movements such as LGBTQ + rights and Black Lives Matter (Eyada, 2020). Nike is actively engaging in activism around social issues, such as racial injustice and police brutality (Eyada, 2020), while Patagonia is well-known for its environmental activism (Peters and Silverman, 2016). However, despite the growing popularity, engaging in BA is no guarantee for business success, as some consumers are skeptical (Edelman, 2019; The Conversation, 2018) and view BA as a marketing ploy (Bhagwat et al., 2020, Manfredi-Sánchez, 2019; The Conversation, 2018). While BA strategies can showcase a brand’s stand on divisive issues, they also risk polarizing consumers given the controversial nature of these movements (Sarkar & Kotler, 2021).

Despite being a relatively novel and underexplored phenomenon (Bhagwat et al., 2020; The Conversation, 2018), BA is now gaining increasing research attention (e.g. Mukherjee and Althuizen, 2020, Parcha and Westerman, 2020, Hydock et al., 2020). However, while prior studies on BA provide valuable foundations on which to build, unresolved issues remain. First, there are some inconsistencies in how the existing body of literature defines BA and its domain (e.g., Appels et al. 2022; Dodd and Supa, 2015, Eilert and Nappier Cherup, 2020; Olkkonen and Morsing, 2022). Second, previous studies often rely on brand-related constructs, such as brand image and brand perception, to capture different aspects of BA (e.g., Bhagwat et al., 2020, Klostermann et al., 2022). While these studies have advanced knowledge on BA, they do not provide a broad, non-context-specific operationalization of the construct and, consequently, only offer a fragmented picture regarding manifestations of BA. Third, the perception of BA differs substantially across consumer segments (Mukherjee and Althuizen, 2020), and the importance consumers attach to specific controversial issues differs by country (Schlegelmilch and Saracevic, 2022). In turn, this impacts on the motivation and frequency with which brands engage in BA.

Discussion

BA has emerged as an increasingly popular phenomenon in recent years (Bhagwat et al., 2020, Korschun et al., 2020, Shortall, 2019), and it has attracted a promising stream of research (e.g., Bhagwat et al., 2020, Hydock et al., 2020, Mukherjee and Althuizen, 2020, Parcha and Westerman, 2020). Our contribution to the literature on BA is threefold. First, we develop a context-free measurement instrument to capture consumer perceptions of activist brands. Second, we provide psychometric evidence on the dimensionality, reliability, and validity of the ABP scale and suggest that the construct consists of two distinct dimensions that can be employed in substantive research on consumer perceptions of activist brands. While the authenticity dimension addresses consumers’ perceptions of genuineness, reliability, and authenticity of brand activist engagement, the public commitment dimension pertains to the publicity of a brands’ commitment to its stance on and engagement around a controversial issue. Building on the extant literature on BA and fresh qualitative data, we identify a number of distinct key manifestations of BA and show that the brand-related constructs used to measure BA in previous studies only partially capture the construct. Finally, we confirm previous studies (e.g., Hambrick and Wowak, 2021, Jones et al., 2014) on the positive effect of BA on brand attitude, brand reputation, and brand trust and propose a nomological network that relates the ABP construct with other brand-related constructs.

Abstract

Brand polarization represents a somewhat unorthodox approach to brand management. Rather than foster support and minimise opposition towards a brand, polarization maintains strong emotions at both ends of the spectrum, concurrently attending to the antipodes of brand love and brand hate. Although some emerging insights suggest that this paradoxical approach can effectively support brands, academic research on polarization in marketing is in its infancy. Integrating insight from political science, psychology and marketing, the study develops an enhanced theoretical conception of brand polarization and operationalises it through a multi-step procedure. Specifically, the paper builds on qualitative and quantitative data from six empirical studies in two contexts (UK and Colombia) to offer a 23-item scale for brand polarization. The new concept and the validated scale contribute to branding theory and marketing practice in several important ways.

Introduction

Brand polarization represents a somewhat unorthodox approach to brand management. Accepted wisdom dictates that managers should strive to enhance positive attitudes towards brands in order to develop deep and rewarding relationships with customers (Ahmad et al., 2021, Banerjee and Shaikh, 2022, Veloutsou, 2023). Conversely, management effort should actively prevent or minimise negative feelings and opposition towards a brand, as these undermine positive outcomes such as trust, satisfaction or loyalty (Curina et al., 2020). A polarizing brand is one which simultaneously invokes fervent support and equally intense opposition. Brand polarization entails strong emotions at both ends of the spectrum and denotes management’s concurrent attention to, and maintenance of, passionate feelings on the antipodes of brand love and brand hate.

Paradoxically, some emerging empirical insights suggest that this positioning needs not be avoided because stoking hate can increase support for a brand (Osuna Ramírez et al., 2019). Moreover, polarization has become a deliberate strategy for some brands (Kavilanz, 2021, Luo et al., 2013a) being beneficial for segmentation and targeting, and for building engagement and loyalty and in the design of the product offering (Weber et al., 2021). Although historically polarization was limited to political (Banda and Kirkland, 2018, Pich et al., 2020, Spears et al., 1990) or football brands (Cobbs et al., 2017, Dalakas and Phillips-Melancon, 2012, Davies et al., 2006), now it seems to extend to other categories. In fact, evidence seems to point to a growing number of polarizing brands (Segran, 2021) which draw large numbers of lovers and haters simultaneously (Luo et al., 2013a, Thompson et al., 2006).

Discussion and theoretical contribution

This study offers a novel operationalisation of the brand polarization phenomenon as a multi-dimensional construct. Given the importance of brand relationships in today’s competitive marketplace and the existence of brand polarization, the study offers a non-brand-specific approach to polarization, which facilitates comparative study of the phenomenon that moves away from objects, such as polarizing brands (Monahan et al., 2017) or polarizing products (Rozenkrants et al., 2017). Through an extensive scale development process, the study enhances the conceptualisation and operationalisation of brand polarization, providing new theoretical and applied directions.

Overall, this research contributes to the branding literature in three significant ways. The first contribution concerns a novel operationalisation of an emerging concept. Integrating insights from diverse literature including psychology, political science, and marketing, the study conceptualises brand polarization and identifies its distinct dimensions. In doing so, the study constitutes a first attempt to develop a comprehensive and multidimensional conception of brand polarization. Admittedly, two of the originally suggested dimensions comprising brand polarization – brand passion and generation of strong feelings for the brand’s achievement/misfortune – were amalgamated during the scale development engagement. Nonetheless, the resulting four-dimensional concept, including brand passion, self-brand benchmarking, intra-group identification and inter-group dissociation, encompasses the intended theoretical domain. Compared to existing conceptions (Luo et al., 2013b, Monahan et al., 2017, Rozenkrants et al., 2017), a key headway concerns its robust and comprehensive nature.

Abstract

Underpinned by brand placement literature, associative network theory, and narrative transportation theory, this research examines how meme marketing types (brand prominent and brand subtle) create immersive consumer experiences through narrative transportation and the moderating effects of consumer brand knowledge, meme literacy, and linguistic characteristics (i.e., pronouns) on meme marketing effectiveness. Study 1 (N = 300) confirms that brand prominent meme marketing generates more favourable consumer outcomes (attitude towards ad, customer engagement) and narrative transportation compared to brand subtle meme marketing. Additionally, Study 1 examines the moderating effects of consumer brand knowledge and the mediating role of narrative transportation. Study 2 (N = 300) validates the findings of Study 1 and assesses the mediating role of narrative transportation between brand prominent meme marketing (vs. brand subtle) and outcomes among consumers with varying meme literacy. Brand prominent meme marketing yields profound consumer outcomes and narrative transportation, especially with low brand knowledge. Study 3 (N = 253) confirms the results of Studies 1 and 2 and further introduces a novel linguistic moderator, examining the use of first-person and second-person pronouns within the meme marketing content using a different product category. This study uncovers the influence of second-person pronouns on intensifying narrative transportation. Empirical evidence supports all three moderated mediation models. Overall, this study adds to the knowledge on meme marketing and provides useful insights for designing and targeting effective meme marketing campaigns.

Introduction

Internet memes have become the most prominent form of digital content found online (Voigts, 2018) and an innate language of digital culture (Forceville, 2014). Meme marketing, a strategy that leverages the popularity of internet memes, allows brands to seamlessly integrate their brand elements (i.e., brand name, logo, product picture, etc.) into entertaining content to communicate and engage with customers in a naturalistic way. Over the past few years, meme marketing has emerged as a popular social media marketing and advertising communication strategy with remarkable engagement results. For example, according to Paquette (2019), meme marketing results in a 30% engagement rate on social media, compared to 1% on Google AdWords. However, little is known about the underlying mechanisms of meme marketing effectiveness, particularly the factors that can enhance or hinder its impact on consumer attitudes and engagement (Malodia et al., 2022; Razzaq et al., 2023).

Brand placement, a prominent marketing tactic, has experienced significant revenue growth, totalling approximately $23 billion USD in 2021 (Statista, 2023). As digital media continues to evolve, marketers are constantly seeking new ways to reach wider audiences. Meme marketing, in this context, has surfaced as a new marketing communication strategy in which brands can strategically place or integrate their brand elements into entertaining internet memes to boost engagement. For instance, Wendy’s, a popular fast food brand in the USA, experienced a 49.7% surge in customer engagement over social media platforms after implementing meme marketing (Kao et al., 2020).

General discussion

We conducted three experimental studies to test our hypotheses, examining the effectiveness of meme marketing. Specifically, brand prominent meme marketing (vs. brand subtle) reported a more favourable attitude towards ad, and customer engagement (see Fig. 2), as well as narrative transportation (see Table 2 for summary of results). The findings contradict extant brand placement literature (Boerman et al., 2015; Choi et al., 2018), highlighting that prominent brand placements in meme marketing capture audience attention, allowing consumers to quickly associate the meme with the advertised brand for improved attitudes and engagement. As far as narrative transportation is concerned, the findings are in line with previous literature on narrative transportation theory (Green and Brock, 2000). That is, prominent brand placements facilitate a faster and easier immersion into a narrative world (Halkias, 2015).

More importantly, we found a significant interaction between brand knowledge and meme marketing types on narrative transportation (H3). In particular, we found that high brand knowledge results in similar or indistinguishable narrative transportability across both types of meme marketing (see Table 2 for summary of results). However, when brand knowledge is low, only brand prominent meme marketing (vs. brand subtle) results in greater narrative transportation. The findings provide support for associative network theory (Keller, 1993), expounding that associations brought up by the prominent brand elements and meme story would create new ‘nodes’ in the brand’s associative network for people who have low knowledge about the brand, leading to narrative transportation (Avramova, 2017).

Abstract

This research addresses “Janus fit” brand extensions: extensions that are perceived to have both “fitting” and “unfitting” associations vis-a-vis the parent brand. One pre-experiment and three main experiments show that when a brand introduces a Janus fit brand extension, it is perceived to be more innovative than when it introduces either a traditional high fit extension or a low fit extension. The effects are mediated by surprise feelings. Specifically, the high brand innovativeness ratings obtained by the Janus fit extensions are explained by the fact that they elicit moderately high surprise feelings in consumers, instead of low surprise feelings (as high fit extensions) or excessively high surprise feelings (as low fit extensions). The Janus fit extensions can also be seen to evoke a “Eureka surprise experience”: an initial feeling of surprise, followed by a sudden realization that the brand extension after all makes sense for the brand in question.

Introduction

Brand extensions (i.e., new products introduced by an existing brand in a product category that is new for the brand) impact brand image, since brand image refers to consumers’ knowledge about a given brand and since brand extensions constitute new information about the brand (Michel and Donthu, 2014, Milberg et al., 2023, Salinas and Pérez, 2009).

One brand image-related goal that companies typically have when launching brand extensions is to reinforce the brand’s image as an innovative or pioneering brand, in particular (Aaker, 1996, Brown, 1998, Gürhan-Canli and Batra, 2004, Keller, 2003). A smartly executed brand extension can indeed reinforce the brand’s innovativeness or pioneering image1 among consumers, even if the brand extension product itself was not—objectively speaking—highly innovative, let alone “new to the world” (cf. Garcia & Calantone, 2002). For instance, by launching the e-book reader Nook in 2010, the book retailer brand Barnes & Noble was able to reinvigorate itself as an innovative brand—even though Barnes & Noble was objectively a late-mover in the market, coming after Amazon’s Kindle (2007) and Sony’s Reader (2009). Likewise, Apple has been able to maintain its image as an extremely innovative, pioneering brand through regular brand extensions, even if its brand extension products per se have not always been pioneering or highly innovative in their respective markets. For instance, Apple did not introduce its smartwatch Apple Watch until 2015, when Samsung, Sony, Microsoft, and others had already had similar smartwatches in the market for years.2

General discussion

8.1. Contributions to research
The present research mainly contributes to three streams of literature. First, the findings contribute to the literature on the spillover effects of brand extensions on parent brand evaluations. Prior research has explored a variety of spillover effects of brand extensions, ranging from the influence of extensions on parent brand evaluations in general (Chun et al., 2015, Martinez et al., 2009, Martinez and Pina, 2010, Milberg et al., 2023, Parker et al., 2018, Salinas and Pérez, 2009, Sood and Keller, 2012, Yuen et al., 2021), to their influence on a parent brand’s perceived personality (Diamantopoulos et al., 2005, Mathur et al., 2012). However, before the present research, brand extensions’ spillover effects on perceived innovativeness of the parent brand, in particular, had not been examined. Yet, the present results suggest that brand extensions do impact perceived brand innovativeness as well. Specifically, the results show that Janus fit brand extensions make consumers perceive the parent brand as more innovative than the more traditional and unsurprising high fit extensions or the excessively surprising low fit extensions.

Second, the present research contributes to the literature addressing the perceived fit of brand extensions. In particular, the present framework adds to the recent research by Deng and Messinger (2022), which suggested that perceived fit should be understood as a multidimensional construct rather than as a unidimensional concept. Like Deng and Messinger (2022), the present results imply that consumers’ fit perceptions may involve an assessment of the fit (or similarity/match) between a parent brand and brand extension product on multiple dimensions. At the same time, the present framework extends Deng and Messinger’s (2022) framework by addressing perceived fit as a dual measure of degree of “fit” and degree of “unfit” across the multiple dimensions. This dual measure of fit/unfit allowed us to identify the new type of brand extension—Janus fit extension—which the traditional additive measures of overall fit have overlooked. Whereas the Janus fit vs. the high fit brand extensions may not significantly differ on a traditional overall fit measure (as used by Chun et al., 2015), they differ significantly on the presently-applied dual, count-based fit scores and unfit scores.

Abstract

The role of Instagram brand messaging as a force for good is examined when a brand’s mission is creating societal change and where being authentic can also lead to controversy and negative responses. A depth study of an exemplary brand is used to explore brand authenticity in the context of sustainability, brand activism messaging and consumer responses to brand posts on Instagram. We offer a unique perspective by focusing on authentic brand sustainability activism. 104 brand messages and 5541 consumer responses to Patagonia, an activist brand renowned for supporting environmental and social issues, are analysed. An extended ‘activist sustainability view’ of brand authenticity is proposed including the conceptualisation of authentic brand sustainability activism. Eight types of consumer response to brand sustainability posts that encompass both positive and negative sentiment are identified. Theoretical and managerial implications, and avenues for future research are offered.

Introduction

The climate crisis poses an existential threat; if we don’t clean up our mess, we’ll be history. Business has a role to play, but it’s only one lever. We must use all the tools at our disposal to secure a safer, more just future. (Ryan Gellert, Patagonia CEO cited in Patagonia,(2022a).

A key issue in business research concerns how organisations position themselves to deliver more than growth and profit – positive impact on society and the environment as tenets of sustainability are a given (Lloveras et al., 2022). An emphasis on sustainability marketing that considers a variety of marketing practices and interactions is now critical if there is to be genuine change for people and planet (Thomas, 2018). Brands are increasingly used as a marketing tool for more than driving sales – they can represent an organisation’s raison d’etre and become a platform for societal change. Brand identity created around sustainability must deliver on promises and ensure authentic embedding of sustainability (Vallaster et al., 2012). Research suggests that when brands promote sustainability values it is essential to be perceived as authentic because consumers are often sceptical about sustainability claims (Ginder and Byun, 2022, Iglesias and Ind, 2020). But what happens in terms of brand authenticity when a sustainable brand takes a stand on controversial environmental, social, and economic issues and essentially becomes a sustainable activist brand?

Being an authentic brand and communicating authentically is characterised by having brand behaviour and core values that are consistent over time (Bruhn et al., 2012, Fritz et al., 2017, Spiggle et al., 2012), remaining real, truthful, honest and true to itself (Becker et al., 2019, Beverland, 2006), and symbolising what the brand stands for (Jian et al., 2019, Morhart et al., 2015). Brand scholars agree on four key dimensions of brand authenticity that can lead to enhanced brand attachment, positive word of mouth, and intentions to purchase, including continuity, credibility, integrity, and symbolism (Carsana and Jolibert, 2018, Morhart et al., 2015). These dimensions of brand authenticity have been exemplified by famous brands that show leadership in some facet of business and connect well with their customers, for example Lego, Amazon and Apple (Goldsmith, 2019). However, while many famously authentic brands have well-accepted prosocial Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) agendas they tend not to adopt issues that are divisive (Mirzaei et al., 2022). Less is known about how the reported dimensions of brand authenticity play out in the context of activist brands that have strong, uncompromising, and sometimes polarising socio-political and sustainability agendas (Eilert & Nappier Cherup, 2020).

Implications and conclusions

Being an authentic ASB does not mean it is without fault and cannot improve, but it does mean being true to its mission. Of course Patagonia is ultimately a business and will only survive if people continue to consume and use their products. Ironically, their sustainability agenda may also drive consumption. However, on balance, their drive to reduce their own impact on the planet (production side) and their commitment to use resources for good to encourage reductions in the impact of consumption (related to their own industry and more generally in the wider world) is full of integrity. As an activist sustainability brand they have been consistent in their use of authentic symbolism and continuously credible in their drive to do better – as any authentic brand should be – and this case study of a 50-year-old activist brand has allowed us to make several theoretical contributions.

Abstract

This study examines the role of gamification elements in engaging suppliers of sharing economy platforms in corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities. We expected that engaging business owners in CSR would improve the brand equity of these platforms by leveraging the business owners’ brand loyalty and brand association. The statistical population of the study is owners of Iranian accommodation who use sharing economy platforms. The size of the sample was 323 accommodation owners. The hypotheses of this study were tested using Smart PLS-3. The study confirmed all the research hypotheses and showed that engaging business owners in social responsibility activities using gamification elements on sharing economy platforms can lead to an increase in the brand equity of the sharing economy platforms. These results will reinforce the synergy between the platforms and their users by making both parties aware of it.

Introduction

The sharing economy (SE) is where customers and business owners (suppliers) are brought together by an online platform. It is a means by which individuals may leverage their assets, such as their cars, their property and, of course, their time so that these assets may be utilized more thoroughly. This increases the efficiency of society as a whole while either increasing the wealth of participating business owners, or increasing their work flexibility, or both (Kuhzady et al., 2021). Advocatesof the SE have often painted a picture of a utopia where business owners will be set free from the shackles of employment while their customers would be able to take advantage of the lower prices (Belk, 2007). Well known examples of SE platforms are Uber in the ride sharing (taxi substitute) field and Airbnb in the accommodation sharing (hotel substitute) field, though there are also imitators of these platforms which have different degrees of market presence in different parts of the world.

However, the vision presented by SE tends to place its emphasis on the freedom of individuals, whether customers or business owners, while ignoring the fact that one of the reasons for the lower costs and prices of the SE compared with traditional businesses is the lack of regulation designed to counteract some negative consequences. Criticisms of the SE approach (Kuhzady et al., 2021) have included negative social and environmental impacts (Ma et al., 2018), limited safety and security (Birinci et al., 2018) and lack of certainty caused by unknown parties (Hossain, 2020) that contradict the vision of SE platforms of being sustainable and socially responsible. Consumers demand social responsibility from SE platforms and therefore business owners must also adopt sustainability and corporate social responsibility (CSR) principles in their businesses (Mi and Coffman, 2019). Consequently, sustaining the SE requires the engagement of all stakeholders where platforms, consumers and business owners are stakeholders in making a sustainable and responsible SE.

Discussion and conclusion

The study examined the role of gamification elements in engaging accommodation owners in CSR activities and enhancing their experience on SE platforms and how it leads to enriching brand equity through mediating effects of accommodation owners’ satisfaction and trust that leads to brand loyalty and brand association.

ads to brand loyalty and brand association. The gamification elements have a significant effect on engaging accommodation owners in CSR activities on SE platforms based on selfdetermination theory. Analysis of the collected data showed that gamification can have a significant and strong effect on engaging accommodation owners in CSR activities on accommodation sharing platforms. This is consistent with previous research on the power of gamification. Researchers have shown that gamification can be used to transfer complex information and promote green behaviour among users (Souza et al., 2020). In this study, it was shown that gamification elements can be used, not only for customers, but also for the accommodation owners and can engage them in behaving sustainably and responsibly. Analysing the collected data indicates a significant effect of gamification elements on the experience of accommodation owners on SE platforms. This also is consistent with previous studies which indicate that gamification can activate hedonic emotions and ultimately enhance the user experience (Hsu and Chen, 2018). It was also concluded that this hedonic experience is not limited to customers but also includes the business owners.

This paper investigates the effect of brand capital on firms’ choices of debt structure. Using a sample of publicly listed U.S. firms between 2001 and 2019, we find that firms with higher levels of brand capital rely less on bank debt financing. This finding is robust to the use of alternative regression models and alternate measures of brand capital and bank debt financing. Employing an industry-level positive shock to brand capital as a quasi-natural experiment, we demonstrate that such a shock negatively affects firms’ reliance on bank debt. Our cross-sectional analyses reveal that the effect of brand capital on bank debt is more pronounced for firms with high information asymmetry, weak corporate governance mechanisms, and poor financial conditions. We also find that brand capital-intensive firms raise funds from the public debt market and issue more (or less) unsecured (or secured) debt. Taken together, we show that brand capital has an important bearing on corporate financing decisions.

Introduction

This study investigates the relationship between brand capital and debt choice. Debt stands as a crucial source of financing for corporations, with U.S.-domiciled firms raising over $2.5 trillion in new debt capital in 2020 alone, comprising bonds, syndicated debt, and various types of loans. In contrast, equity markets saw a mere $335 billion secured during the same period.1 Firms that choose to use debt to finance their projects can borrow from banks or issue debt in the public market, also known as debt choice. Existing literature suggests that corporate debt choice is affected by various factors such as corporate disclosure quality (Dhaliwal, Khurana, & Pereira, 2011), analyst coverage (Li, Lin, & Zhan, 2019), external governance mechanisms (Bharath & Hertzel, 2019), state ownership (Boubakri & Saffar, 2019), product market competition (Boubaker, Saffar, & Sassi, 2018), and corporate ownership and control rights (Lin, Ma, Malatesta, & Xuan, 2013). However, the influence of firm-specific brand capital (i.e., an intangible asset encompassing consumers’ awareness, impressions, loyalty, and recognition of a product, service, or organisation (Belo, Gala, Salomao, & Vitorino, 2022, Belo, Lin, & Vitorino, 2014, Hasan, Taylor, & Richardson, 2022, Pillai, 2012)) on debt choice remains unexplored.2 This study aims to bridge this gap in the literature.

The motivation for this study stems from the growing recognition that brand capital constitutes a sizable share of corporate value. For instance, Belo et al. (2022) show that brand capital accounts for 6%–25% of firms’ market value. The Economist reported that “brands account for more than 30% of the stock market value of companies in the S&P 500 index.”3 Forbes estimated that the top 100 most valuable brands in 2020 were collectively worth $2.5 trillion.4 Notably, financial intermediaries also emphasize the importance of brands, as evidenced by the downgrading of Volkswagen’s credit rating by Fitch Ratings and Standard & Poor’s (S&P) following the 2015 emission crisis. In response to this crisis, Volkswagen had to secure a $21.2 billion bank loan to navigate the challenges, demonstrating the critical role of brand capital in maintaining financial strength and managing reputational damage.5 Against this backdrop, our central research question revolves around the impact of brand capital on firms’ access to public debt and, by extension, its potential to reduce dependence on bank debt. This study aims to empirically address this question, shedding light on a crucial aspect of corporate financing decisions.

Conclusion

Using a large sample of publicly listed U.S. firms over the 2001–2019 period, we examine how brand capital affects firms’ debt choice, whether through bank borrowing or public debt issuance. Grounded in theoretical frameworks of information asymmetry, governance mechanisms, and financial conditions, we anticipate an inverse relationship between brand capital and reliance on bank debt. Our empirical findings align with these expectations, revealing that firms with higher levels of brand capital demonstrate a reduced reliance on bank debt compared with their counterparts with lower brand capital. Our results remain robust to a wide array of robustness tests. To mitigate potential endogeneity concerns, we implement a comprehensive set of tests, including the impact threshold for confounding variable specifications, Oster (2019) bound estimates, a heteroskedasticity-based instrumental variable approach, a two-step GMM method, an entropy balancing method regression, PSM, and a DiD regression approach. Notably, the impact of brand capital on firms’ debt choice emerges unscathed through all these tests.

Further insights emerge from our cross-sectional analyses, revealing that the negative association between brand capital and bank debt is more pronounced in firms characterized by high information asymmetry, weak corporate governance mechanisms, and poor financial conditions. Additional analyses shed light on the preference of brand capital-intensive firms for public debt, coupled with a nuanced use of secured and unsecured debt.

Abstract

The implementation of university sustainability affects brand perceptions by conferring attributes related to commitment and reputation, especially by students. The proper management of sustainability is related to an improvement in the university brand perceived by its stakeholders, including students. For this reason, this research aims to analyse whether university sustainability positively affects brand positioning among university students. For this purpose, a theoretical and quantitative mixed-method investigation is proposed that allows the establishment of a structural model in which the relationships between the dimensions of university sustainability with the dimensions of brand positioning are evident. The empirical analysis found that some dimensions of university sustainability, such as the institutional framework, campus operations and some dimensions of the substantive functions, positively affect brand positioning in university students and generate commitment to the university from both the prestige and reputation of the brand.

Introduction

One of the main challenges for organizations of the twenty-first century is to implement sustainability in their strategy, structure and processes [1,2]. This challenge has been raised for universities at the United Nations Conference for Sustainable Development in 2012 (Rio + 20) [3], so it remains a challenge that must transcend the ecocentric perspective and seeks to develop as a model of inclusive social transformation, that encompasses human well-being, environmental care and economic development [4]. In this regard, the university is the main promoter of change in companies and state institutions. In this way, universities are responsible for training citizens and future professionals who will be responsible for implementing ways of working that contribute to Sustainable Development [5]. Consequently, the importance of the present study lies in the fact that sustainability allows universities to achieve better economic results by reducing costs and decreasing the regulatory burden, as well as increasing brand positioning, prestige, and social responsibility actions with the community [6,7]. In addition, it favours competition in obtaining students, sustaining their programmes and obtaining high-level faculty [8].

Thus, this study addresses the existing theoretical gap regarding the relationship between sustainability and university brand positioning, given that in the Colombian context, there are no studies that address this relationship. Although there is research on the implementation of sustainability as an organizational model and models for its evaluation in Colombian universities [9,10], the impact of sustainability on the management of the university brand and its positioning in the context of Higher Education Institutions in Colombia has not yet been developed.

Conclusions

To conclude, the main theoretical and managerial implications are presented, as well as the limitations and future research on the issue.

6.1. Theoretical implications
The previous sections have developed the empirical contribution of the analysis of the proposed model for which theoretical assumptions were validated or refuted. However, this research addressed an analysis of the positioning of the university brand for which some dimensions were proposed that were not clearly defined and which are also consistent with the advances in university branding studies [53,60,72]. In addition, the incidence of sustainability as an organizational model on the positioning of the university brand is addressed, where a satisfactory validation of the dimensions of sustainability was addressed and the results of the analysis of its influence on identity, image and perceived quality were found, as constitutive of the positioning of the university brand. The studies on the issue evidenced the existence of a gap in the conceptualization of the determinants of positioning in university branding. Thus, theoretical and empirical demonstrations of identity, image and perceived quality as dimensions of this construct and its impact on the commitment to institutional support for sustainability are a recent theoretical contribution to the issue. The present research makes a contribution to university branding by establishing the way in which the dimensions of sustainability are generators of brand positioning in students. Thus, it was possible to establish that the dimensions of sustainability, such as institutional framework, campus operations, education, research and extension, are determinants of prestige, uniqueness and relevance over the competition. Therefore, they are aspects that influence the choice of the university by the students and at the same time are elements that affect the loyalty and satisfaction of the brand promise. Likewise, a theoretical contribution was made that had not been addressed, by establishing how the dimensions of sustainability affected the constituent elements of positioning, such as perceived quality, image and identity of the university brand, in being able to propose the central aspects of sustainability in the management of the university brand.

Abstract

The primary purpose of this article is to determine the relationship between employer brand attractiveness, which is considered to be critical in achieving sustainable human resource management and organizational commitment, and to reveal the moderating role of perceived organizational support in this relationship. The research was conducted on the employees of 5-star hotels in Manavgat, one of the most popular tourist destinations in Turkey. Data were collected between June and October 2023. The hypothetical model was developed based on the results obtained and was tested using the AMOS program (IBM SPSS AMOS 22). Accordingly, the Process macro (model 1) was found to be the most appropriate model for determining moderating effects. The results of this study revealed a positive relationship between the economic, social, development, and application dimensions of employer brand attractiveness and organizational commitment. On the other hand, it was concluded that interest value did not have a statistically significant effect on organizational commitment. Moreover, it was also determined in the results of this study that perceived organizational support has a moderating role in the relationship between employer brand attractiveness dimensions and organizational commitment. It is believed that the research findings concerning the relationships between the variables and the moderating effect of perceived organizational support will contribute to filling a gap in the relevant literature. In light of the findings, a number of theoretical and practical implications have been presented for tourism and hospitality organizations and academicians on sustainable human resource management.

Introduction

The gradual deterioration of the natural environment caused by human activity has led to the necessity of proposing the concept of sustainable development. Consequently, the safeguarding of the natural environment and resources for the benefit of future generations has become a global obligation [1]. In addition, contemporary businesses are developing novel management strategies in response to the global imperative [2]. The concept of sustainable development is not limited to economic considerations but encompasses social and ecological aspects as well [3]. The application of the concept of sustainable development at the business level necessitates an understanding of the social and ecological contributions of business processes while seeking to meet the expectations of all stakeholders. This encompasses the financial expectations of owners and shareholders and the security and stability needs of employees and other groups that interact with the business [4]. The most crucial aspect of sustainable enterprise development is the identification of the optimal human resources [5]. It can be observed that the enhancement of the social and environmental efficacy of enterprises is contingent upon the role of the human factor. The implementation of environmentally oriented policies and procedures can be effectively carried out by individuals who possess a positive attitude towards the environment, possess the requisite competencies and knowledge to understand and address ecological issues, and are aware of the potential consequences of their actions on the environment. In this context, there are a number of advantages to be gained by businesses that adopt sustainable human resources practices in their personnel selection procedures [6].

Conclusions

In the tourism sector, which is a labor-intensive sector, it is quite important to create brand attractiveness and the desire of employees to continue working in the organization. An employee who is loyal to the company he/she serves will significantly lower the employee turnover rate. In the present study, considering these aspects, the relationship between employer brand attractiveness, continuance commitment, and perceived organizational support has been determined. The effects of economic value, social value, development value, interest value, and application value, which are the sub-dimensions of employer brand attractiveness, on continuance commitment were analyzed. The concept of organizational support suggests that when employees feel supported by the organization, their behaviors tend to benefit the company. Employer Branding is an important tool within the talent management process. In this context, this study has investigated the potential moderating role of perceived organizational support in the relationship between the sub-dimensions of employer brand attractiveness and continuance commitment. A model has been developed and evaluated based on these obtained data.

After examining the effect of employer brand attractiveness sub-dimensions on organizational commitment, it was found that the sub-dimensions of employer brand attractiveness, including economic value, social value, developmental value, and application value, affect organizational commitment. It is well known that employer brand value affects the variables of job satisfaction, organizational loyalty, behavioral intention, branding in tourism, and affective organization commitment, and this study has confirmed its effect on continuance commitment. An important finding of this study is that the benefit value does not influence continuance commitment.

Abstract

The relationship between brand activism and other forms of activism, as well as the potential paradoxes that may arise from practicing brand activism, has not been fully addressed in the burgeoning brand activism literature. However, these questions are valid, given the growing interest in brands and activism in both research and practice. This article presents an overview of the ecosystem of organisation-related activisms surrounding brand activism and provides some insights into how brand activism can act as a bridge between them through different response processes within this ecosystem. Additionally, it discusses the relationship between corporate and brand activism, arguing that they are inextricably intertwined through the notion of organisational authenticity. Furthermore, the article uses the paradox wheel to illustrate some of the paradoxes of brand activism that should be considered in practice and as a basis for expanding research in the field. Finally, this article introduces a collection of articles in this special issue that has brought together a group of scholars researching brand activism from different perspectives, each of which offers grounds for a critical evaluation of what activism brings to brands, and what brand activism and branding bring to activism itself.

Introduction

Traditionally, activism has been limited to the political and social spheres. However, the changing manner in which consumers interact with brands has led to a need to rethink existing perspectives on the role of brands in contemporary society (Swaminathan et al. 2020). In the present time of social and political polarisation, societies worldwide confront a variety of urgent issues, such as capitalism, consumerism, poverty, the climate crisis, LGBTQIA rights, racial discrimination and injustice, the consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic, the legal status of abortion, gun control, and religious matters. At the same time, in the hyperconnected world individuals have gained an instant and continuous access to networks, other people, political organisations, brands, and other entities anytime and anywhere. They can easily become involved in various issues and express their opinions. Doing nothing has become a form of complicity and this mindset seems to be entering the business world as well (Moorman 2020). In this altered context, the notion of brand activism has become a prevalent topic in brand management literature and practice. Brand activism refers to the type of activism where companies and their brands play a significant role in social change processes by taking a stance on social and political issues (Moorman 2020).

Conclusion

Brand activism has become a widely practiced phenomenon in the business world, and research on the topic has penetrated the brand management literature. It is arguable that brand activism is here to stay due to increased consumer and stakeholder awareness of societal issues and their expectations of active corporate involvement in addressing them. As demonstrated in this special issue, brands can and should play an important role in addressing societal controversies. However, as stated in our article and reiterated by other articles in this special issue, brand activism presents several issues that brand management must be aware of, explore, reflect on, and consider in research and practice.

As part of the special issue on brands and activism, the aim of this article was to highlight some areas that we believe are particularly important for understanding brand activism and how it can be managed. This article, along with the other articles accepted for this special issue, may serve as a source of inspiration for further research or as an introduction to the topic. It may also stimulate thinking about various outstanding dilemmas in this area that are worthy of further exploration. We hope that this special issue will inspire other scholars to develop future theoretical and empirical advances that will contribute to a rich body of literature that will expand our understanding of brand activism in new and important ways. We also hope that it will provide brand managers with some valuable and helpful insights.