Highlights

Abstract

Keywords

۱٫ Introduction

۲٫ Methods

۲٫۱٫ Review of literature

۲٫۲٫ Online questionnaires

۳٫ Results

۳٫۱٫ Literature review results

۳٫۲٫ Dictionary review results

۳٫۳٫ Questionnaire results

۳٫۴٫ Additional comments from stakeholder feedback

۴٫ Discussion

۵٫ Conclusion

Ethics statement

Declaration of Competing Interest

Acknowledgements

References

Abstract

‘Offshore’ aquaculture has gained increased attention as a potential route of expanding production of commercially important finfish species such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). However, there is a lack of clarity about the term ‘offshore’ and how different ‘offshore’ environments are, compared to more traditional coastal or inshore locations. This uncertainty is an issue for effective governance and regulation and is a bottleneck for development that must be addressed. This study used a mixed method approach to evaluate what is meant by ‘offshore’ production and determine if existing approaches are suitable for licensing and regulating ‘offshore’ salmon aquaculture in Scotland, as a case study. First, a systematic literature review was used to assess academic studies and then an online questionnaire was used to gather views from salmon aquaculture stakeholders in Scotland and other countries. The results show there is inconsistency in what is perceived by the term ‘offshore’ aquaculture, making it challenging to determine a global definition. Literature, which was not limited to salmon production, tended to focus on distance from the coast but salmon aquaculture stakeholders had very mixed views, though a slight majority considered wave exposure was the key characteristic. The stakeholders indicated there may be a number of benefits of ‘offshore’ salmon aquaculture, but also suggested that existing regulations are not appropriate for ‘offshore’ salmon production and could be enhanced. The study results suggest that regulators and stakeholders need to agree on consistent terminology that characterises the production environment.

۱٫ Introduction

Coastal regions are highly productive and an important resource for food production through aquaculture and fisheries. However, there is considerable competition and conflict from other users, so space for expansion of aquaculture is often limited (Sanchez-Jerez et al., 2016). Such constraints could affect contributions to global food supply as demand for aquatic products continues to rise (FAO, 2018). Thus, in many areas, if the aquaculture industry is to grow and increase production, there is a need to consider other locations. One of the alternatives to coastal farms is the use of so called ‘offshore’ sites, and consequently ‘offshore’ aquaculture has gained increased attention in recent years for both fish and shellfish (Jansen et al., 2016; Gentry et al., 2016; Barill´e et al., 2020). In 2010 the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) held a workshop that classified mariculture into three categories based on site location (coastal, off the coast and offshore). The expert group defined mariculture as “offshore when it is located > 2 km or out of sight from the coast, in water depths > 50 m, with waves heights of 5 m or more, ocean swells, variable winds and strong ocean currents, in locations that are exposed (open sea, e.g. ≥ ۱۸۰◦ open) and where there is a requirement for remote operations, automated feeding, and where remote monitoring of operating system may be required” (Lovatelli et al., 2013). This definition is prescriptive and consequently only relevant at present to few existing or exploited sites.