Abstract

     This study examined (a) whether growing up with lower-educated parents and attending lower parental education schools associated with children’s problem development within the behavioral, emotional, and peer relationship domains; and (b) whether the association of lower individual-level parental education with children’s development within these three domains depended upon school-level parental education. To this end, 698 children (Mage = 7.08 in first grade) from 31 mainstream elementary schools were annually followed from first grade to sixth grade. Problems within the behavioral domain included conduct problems, oppositional defiant problems, attention-deficit and hyperactivity problems, and aggression. Problems within the emotional domain included depression and anxiety symptoms. Problems within the peer relationship domain included physical victimization, relational victimization, and peer dislike. Results from multi-level latent growth models showed that, as compared to children of higher-educated parents, children of lower-educated parents generally had higher levels of problems within all three domains in first grade and exhibited a faster growth rate of problems within the behavioral domain from first to sixth grade. Furthermore, as compared to children attending higher parental education schools, children attending lower parental education schools generally had higher levels of problems within the behavioral and emotional domains in first grade and showed a faster growth rate of peer dislike over time. In addition, cross-level interaction analyses showed that in higher parental education schools, children of lower-educated parents showed a faster growth rate of depression symptom levels than children of higher-educated parents. In lower parental education schools, the growth rate of depression symptom levels did not differ between children of higher- and lower-educated parents. Results highlight that addressing the needs of lower parental education schools and children growing up with lower-educated parents may be of primary importance.

۱٫ Theoretical perspectives and empirical findings on individual- and school-level parental education and child development

     Problems within the behavioral domain (e.g., symptoms of conduct problems, oppositional defiant problems, aggression, attention-deficit and hyperactivity problems), problems within the emotional domain (e.g., anxiety and depression symptoms), and problems within the peer relationship domain (e.g., being disliked or bullied by peers) hinder children’s healthy development (Dodge et al., 2008; Obradović et al., 2009; Timmermans et al., 2008; van Lier & Koot, 2010). Stable-high or increasing levels of problems within these domains may independently or in concert contribute to the development of mental health problems. This, in turn, may relate to concurrent and future consequences, such as lower educational achievement, delinquency, substance abuse, and unemployment (Kokko & Pulkkinen, 2000; Lynne-Landsman et al., 2010; McLeod & Kaiser, 2004; Vaillancourt et al., 2013; van Lier et al., 2012; Woodward & Fergusson, 2000).

     Theories, such as the social causation hypothesis, may explain the influence of early adverse contexts on children’s maladaptive development. According to the social causation hypothesis, mental health problems emerge due to environmental adversity, disadvantage, and stress associated with socioeconomic deprivation, including having lower-educated parents in childhood. Indeed, previous studies have provided empirical evidence consistent with this hypothesis (e.g., Hollingshead & Redlich, 1958; Hudson, 1988, Hudson, 2005; McLaughlin et al., 2011, Ritsher, Warner, Johnson and Dohrenwend, 2001).

Conclusion

     The elementary school period, apart from being essential for mastering academic skills, is of profound importance for children’s healthy behavioral, emotional, and peer relationship development. Our results suggest that growing up with lower-educated parents and attending lower parental education schools may independently associate with higher levels of behavioral, emotional, and peer relationship difficulties in first grade and with faster growth rates over time from first to sixth grade. In addition, results suggest that with respect to behavioral problems, anxiety, and peer relationships, attending higher parental education schools may have some beneficial effects for children of lower-educated parents. With respect to depression symptoms, results suggest that children of lower-educated parents may not benefit from attending higher parental education schools to the same extent as children of higher-educated parents. Results highlight the importance of identifying and addressing the needs of lower parental education schools and children growing up with lower-educated parents.