Abstract

     In this paper, we examine the relationships between school suspensions and/or ADHD diagnoses and delinquency across different school disciplinary and special education climates. Given how these childhood interventions are intended to improve schoolchildren’s behavior and create a safe and predictable learning environment, it is critical for scholars to compare how these diverse yet connected responses to child misbehavior influence delinquent behavior. We use data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study (n = 2,267). Results from binomial regression models show that delinquency scores are higher among suspended children and children receiving both suspension and ADHD treatment, compared to young people who experience neither. Further, school context has a direct association with delinquency scores, as children attending schools with higher rates of school suspensions and special education enrollment have lower delinquency scores. Moreover, the relationship between individual childhood experiences with school suspension and/or ADHD treatment and delinquency is moderated by school context, especially regarding special education enrollment rates.

Introductin

     Each year, approximately 2.5 million U.S. students are suspended from school (Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC), 2021). At the same time, 6.1 million school-aged children are diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with nearly 2 in 3 receiving therapy or taking prescription medication for their diagnoses (Danielson et al., 2018) and roughly 2 million children are enrolled in in special education behavior plans for ADHD and similar conduct problems (Civil Rights Data Collection (CRDC), 2021). The use of suspension or medical diagnoses and special education for perceived childhood behavior problems reflects different philosophies regarding misbehavior and involve different institutions, leading to different approaches (Hinshaw & Scheffler, 2014; Kern et al., 2019; Lamont, 2013). School suspensions are punishments imposed by schools that rely on negative consequences (e.g., exclusion) for misconduct to encourage good behavior (Bandura, 1977; Bear, 2012). ADHD diagnoses entail medical decisions made between doctors and caregivers, utilizing therapy and/or medication, and often involve schools implementing special education plans to promote appropriate behavior.

Results

     Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for all variables in the study for the total sample and for each category of individual suspension and ADHD treatment (i.e., neither suspended nor received ADHD treatment, received only ADHD treatment, only suspended, and both suspended and received ADHD treatment). Notably, almost half of the respondents had experiences with suspension and/or ADHD treatment. The proportion of respondents who experienced neither exclusion nor ADHD diagnoses is 0.506, 0.075 were diagnosed with ADHD without experiencing exclusionary discipline, 0.307 experienced exclusion without ADHD diagnoses, and 0.111 experienced both exclusion and ADHD diagnoses. The average delinquency score in the sample is 1.1 delinquent behaviors and varies by suspension/ADHD experience. Among those who receive neither ADHD treatment nor suspension, the average delinquency score is 0.6, compared to an average delinquency score of 0.7 for those who receive only ADHD treatment, 1.7 for those who experience suspension only, and 2.1 for those who receive both ADHD treatment and suspension. School punishment and special education rates also vary by suspension/ADHD category. Overall, the average school special education rate is 15.5. For children who are neither suspended nor treated for ADHD, the average school special education rate is 14.5, compared to an average rate of 14.7 for those only treated for ADHD, 16.6 for those only suspended, and 17.7 for those who are both suspended and treated for ADHD. The average school punishment rate is 12.5 for the total sample, compared to 9.8 for those who are nether treated for ADHD nor suspended, 8.6 for those only treated for ADHD, 16.6 for those only suspended, and 15.6 for those who are both suspended and treated for ADHD.