مقاله سال ۲۰۱۷

 مجله بین المللی آموزش مدیریت – The International Journal of Management Education

۱٫۱٫ Background Feedback is an integral part of education (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Mory, 2003; Schartel, 2012; Shute, 2008). Ramaprasad (1983: 4) defines feedback as “information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter which is used to alter the gap in some way”. The self-regulated learning model (Thurlings, Vermeulen Bastiaens, and Stijnen, 2013), for example, supposes that students establish goals for each course (reference level), assess the grades they get as feedback on their progress (actual level), and adjust their effort as needed to achieve their goals (Butler & Winne, 1995; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006).

Students’ behaviour in this context can be affected by their sense of control; i.e., their perceived ability to influence a process to obtain an outcome. A sense of control has been related to many outcomes, including achievement, motivation, and success (Skinner, 1996).

Students’ behaviour may also be affected by their perceived performance. Unfortunately, students’ self-assessments often only approximate their actual learning (Nowell & Alston, 2007; Sitzmann, Ely, Brown, & Bauer, 2010), despite their receiving outcome feedback such as test grades. Students tend to over-estimate their learning progress and likely course outcomes, with weaker students being more prone to this tendency (Kruger & Dunning, 1999). This over-estimation could impede students’ success by making it less likely they will recognize the need to adjust their studying.