مقاله انگلیسی رایگان در مورد روان درمانی ها برای اختلالات کم توجهی – بیش فعالی – وایلی 2018

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by attention deficits and hyperactive behaviors. According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), ADHD can be divided into three subtypes based on the inattention and hyperactivity dimensions: a predominantly inattentive type, a predominantly hyperactive–impulsive type, and a combined hyperactive–inattentive type. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD is approximately 3.4% for children and adolescents (Polanczyk, Salum, Sugaya, Caye, & Rohde, 2015) and 5% for adults (Willcutt, 2012). More males tend to be affected than females. ADHD interferes with academic performance (Loe & Feldman, 2007) and is associated with a high risk for comorbid conditions, such as conduct disorders (Waschbusch, 2002), anxiety (Jarrett & Ollendick, 2008), depression (Blackman, Ostrander, & Herman, 2005), accidental injuries (Nigg, 2013), and suicidality (Barbaresi et al., 2013). ADHD is a major public health concern as the disease is burdensome on both individuals and society (Pelham, Foster, & Robb, 2007; Robb et al., 2011). The annual costs related to education, treatment, and juvenile justice for ADHD children and adolescents are estimated to be around $43 billion. For adults, ADHD results in approximately 121 million missed work days, with $20 billion lost in salary alone (Pelham et al., 2007). Costs associated with ADHD are comparable to those associated with major depression and stroke (Pelham et al., 2007). Therefore, the development of effective treatments for ADHD is important on both the individual and the societal levels. Guidelines from the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (previously the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence [NICE], 2008) recommend pharmacotherapy as a first-line treatment in adults with ADHD and in children with severe cases of ADHD. Pharmacotherapy for ADHD, in the form of stimulant and nonstimulant medications, is recommended, either alone or in combination with psychosocial interventions. Pharmacotherapy is effective in only 70% of cases (Spencer et al., 2005) and is associated with several side effects in the short term (e.g., delayed sleep, reduced appetite, headaches, abdominal pain); however, the long-term safety of pharmacotherapy for ADHD is insufficiently investigated (Clavenna & Bonati, 2014). Another important issue related to the use of medications for ADHD is that medication adherence rates decrease throughout adolescence; up to 70% of teenagers stop taking their ADHD medications by the age of 15 (Wolraich et al., 2005). An active debate also remains regarding whether pharmacotherapy improves functional impairments associated with ADHD, as studies have shown that medications are less effective for improving functional deficits (e.g., positive social behaviors, peer rejection) as compared to their effects on core ADHD symptoms (Langberg & Becker, 2012; Nijmeijer et al., 2008)