Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Literature review of battery modularity for electric vehicles

3. Approach to the concept of ‘replacing battery’ stations

4. Challenges of ‘battery replacement’ stations

5. Envisaged I4.0 solutions

6. Discussion

7. Conclusions and outlook

Acknowledgments

References

Abstract

     Energy and environmental impacts are at the top of the list of major global challenges to be addressed within the next few years. With transportation being one of the most pollutant sectors, focus has been directed towards Electric Vehicles, due to their significantly less dependency on fossil fuels. Nevertheless, electric mobility is currently characterized by a limited driving range, leading manufacturers to investigating new methods that could increase range and charging efficiency. Current research is mainly focused on increasing battery performance and reducing charging time. This study concentrates on presenting a novel approach, based on replacing battery stations, where the vehicle’s batteries are replaced with a fully charged one (available at the station), while new modular batteries could be made on the spot. The existing gas station networks could be used for the replacement of electric car batteries. This will be addressing the issue of time-consuming charging of batteries. Through the assimilation of Industry 4.0 Key Enabling Technologies, the respective challenges can be addressed. This is illustrated through a holistic framework, whereby the requirements for the context-aware design of the car itself are also given and a specific solution, based on the mechanical mounting of batteries is discussed..

Introduction

     Car manufacturers enter the space of the electric vehicle (EV) (Gnann et al. 2018; Nanaki 2021). This is highly correlated to the fact that the consumers find the green aspect very appealing (Rezvani, Jansson, and Bodin 2015). Reduction in the consumption of the emissions and the resources (Athanasopoulou, Bikas, and Stavropoulos 2018) are also in support of this trend. Moreover, the green agenda in Europe seems to have had a great impact on manufacturing in general (‘White Paper 2011 | Mobility and Transport’ 2021). Statistical figures show the correlation between market uptake and GDP, in the European Union (EU), with Germany, the United Kingdom and France having the highest EV market share in the EU for 2018, highlighting the importance of the EV market (‘Interactive Map – Correlation between Uptake of Electric Cars and GDP in the EU – ACEA – European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association’ 2021; Hanžič, Marksel, and Božičnik 2019). Electric vehicles, in particular, seem to be having a very specific related issue, that of the battery. Some intelligence (Arora, Shen, and Kapoor 2016; Albright and Kappel 2003) has been embodied in the design of the car and the battery, but the issue of its charging still remains, despite the fact that the stakeholders’ number has now been increased drastically, by offering many differentiating choices.

Conclusions and outlook

     The investigation of I4.0 KETs, under the concept of battery modularity and the development of intermediate battery replacement stations, could have high potential on addressing significant barriers, related to the time-consuming battery charging. The particular study focuses on bringing together the modular batteries concept, which is still at a very early stage, with the new concept of intermediate battery replacement stations.

     From a product development perspective, modularization correlates with a radical change in the automotive industry. The modular battery pack design and distribution, under the concept of battery swapping stations, could lead to improved network capabilities and to manufacturing mobility. Modularity could be considered as a new milestone in the automotive industry, targeting at the optimization of global production networks and operational flexibility. Latest achievements in the field of complex assembly decision-making and the use of advanced technologies in design under the concept of I4.0, have rendered the necessary feasibility and adaptability possible, towards the implementation of modular concepts in the industrial sector (Remco, Halman, and Hofman 2016).

Abstract

Nomenclature

1. Introduction

2. Vehicle model and driver model

3. Design of DYC for energy-efficiency

4. DYC for stability and stability judgement

5. Performance of the DYC for energy-efficiency and the DYC for stability

6. Switching principle

7. Results of combining DYC for energy-efficiency and DYC for stability

8. Conclusion

References

Abstract

     A direct yaw moment control (DYC) for energy-efficiency and a DYC for stability of electric vehicles (EVs) are proposed. The DYC for energy-efficiency is active during non-safety-critical cornering manoeuvres to improve the energy-efficiency of EVs. The DYC for stability is active during safety-critical manoeuvres to keep the vehicle stable. A combination of the DYC for energy-efficiency and the DYC for stability is studied. A stability judgement based on the yaw rate and slip angle is designed for evaluating the criticality of the vehicle’s working state. A switching principle for alternating between the DYC for energy-efficiency and the DYC for stability is designed. During non-safety-critical cornering manoeuvres, it is shown that the DYC for energy efficiency can save considerable percentage of energy compared to both equal torque driving and the DYC for stability. During cornering manoeuvres containing both non-safety-critical parts and safety-critical parts, the simulation results in this work show that the combination of the DYC for energy-efficiency and the DYC for stability can give 12% to 18% energy savings compared to the DYC for stability only for the vehicle and manoeuvres studied.

Introduction

     Electric vehicles (EVs) are an important component of a fossil-fuel-free future and the number of EVs on the roads is increasing rapidly. There are several solutions for electrified powertrains, one of which is in-wheel motor technology. In the case of 4 in-wheel motors (4IWMs), the propelling power of each wheel can be independently controlled. Therefore, 4IWM EVs can provide more control flexibility than traditional centralised driving vehicles. For example, direct yaw moment control (DYC) can easily be implemented in a 4IWM EV.

     The DYC usually follows a hierarchical structure consisting of a high-level yaw moment controller and a low-level torque distribution controller. Based on a reference model, the high-level controller can determine the stability yaw moment which provides an effective way to stabilise the vehicles. Tahami et al. [1] used a fuzzy logic controller, which adopted the yaw rate error (compared to the desired yaw rate) and this yaw rate error rate of change as inputs and the torque difference between the right and left wheels as the output to generate the DYC, for the purpose of enhancing the vehicle stability. Raksincharoensak et al. [2] proposed two types of desired yaw rate: one for the lane-keeping function and the other for vehicle stability control to improve the vehicle handling and stability. A driver steering behaviour recognition algorithm, using the steering wheel angle and the steering wheel velocity as inputs, was designed to determine the type of desired yaw rate. Geng et al. [3] took, besides the desired yaw rate, the desired body slip angle into account and adopted the linear quadratic regulator method to calculate the optimal yaw moment.

Conclusion

     A DYC for energy-efficiency based on the desired lateral acceleration is designed for non-safety-critical cornering manoeuvres. A DYC for stability tracking the desired yaw rate is designed for safety-critical cornering manoeuvres. In order to improve the energy efficiency and keep the vehicle safe during cornering manoeuvres which contain both non-safety-critical parts and safety-critical parts, a DYC is proposed which combines DYC for energy-efficiency and DYC for stability, which has been evaluated by simulations. A stability judgement, consisting of the yaw rate and body slip angle, is suggested and a switching principle for alternating between DYC for energy-efficiency and DYC for stability has been developed.

     The following five driving strategies have been analysed: 4WETD, 2WETD, DYC for energy-efficiency, DYC for stability and combined DYC. During non-safety-critical cornering manoeuvres, the DYC for energy-efficiency can make a considerable percentage of energy saving compared to 4WETD, 2WETD and DYC for stability. It has been shown that during cornering manoeuvres containing both non-safety-critical parts and safety-critical parts, only the DYC for stability and combined DYC can keep the vehicle safe and besides the combined DYC consumes less energy than the DYC for stability.

Abstract

Introduction

Literature review

Electric vehicles — key concepts

Overview of hybrid three‑wheeler

Current state of the art of electric three‑wheeler

Policy gap

Methods

Duration

Rickshaw cost

Usage statistics

Expenditures and earnings

Sustainability analysis

Discussion

Reduced GHG emissions for environmental sustainability

Development of indigenous technology

Government easy loan scheme

Poverty amelioration for economic sustainability

Easily available charging stations

Promoting gender equality

Conclusions

Declarations

References

Abstract

     Transportation sector is one of the major contributors to GHG emissions, and it is essential to investigate the role of electric vehicles in economic and environmental performance of developing countries. In this research work, the authors seek to investigate the usage pattern of three-wheeler vehicle by taking a Pakistan-based survey approach and analyzing the responses from various three-wheeler drivers across the country. The survey results indicate that the adoption of hybrid and electric three-wheelers in Pakistan would be welcomed by the users due to increased economic benefits, despite having a high initial capital cost. On an average basis, the regular three-wheeler is run for more than 5 days a week, 101–150 km daily across more than 10 h, and enables the owner to make around PKR 20,000–25,000 (~ US $119–US $149) after approximately PKR 15,000 (~ USD $89) is spent every month on fuel and maintenance. The adoption of hybrid or electric three-wheelers can easily improve the monthly earnings by 50%. In addition to this, the GHG emissions from the transportation sector will be considerably lowered around 3–6 tonnes of CO2 emissions per year per three-wheeler. At an investment return period of 13–16 months, the electric three-wheeler is a highly lucrative opportunity.

Introduction

     The industrial revolutions brought about a paradigm shift in the quality of lives of individuals; the world became a global village and the technological advancements resulted in extensive economic gains. However, the environmental impact of the economic gains was often overlooked and it eventually culminated in the pressing issue of climate change where the annual temperatures are forecasted to rise by 0.5–4.5 °C over the next century (GoP, 2016) if stringent measures are not taken. In this context, it is incumbent upon the stakeholders and policymakers to identify the areas where the carbon footprint can be reduced through conscious eforts. Transportation sector is one of the major contributors to environmental pollution1 and the conventional internal combustion engines require stringent protocols for curbing the environmentally detrimental greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, countries have promoted the use of electric vehicles (Kwon et al., 2020; Daina et al., 2017) to reduce the environmental impact of transportation, in addition to numerous clean energy initiatives. The commercially available electric vehicles are broadly classifed into two categories: (i) plug-in hybrid electric vehicles or PHEVs and (ii) battery electric vehicles or BEVs and share the common aim of reducing the GHG emissions by reducing or eliminating the use of fossil fuels (Cofman et al., 2017). The worldwide adoption of hybrid technology vehicles has been an outcome of spreading awareness followed by relevant actions among governments, consumers, and producers.

Conclusions

     In this research work, the authors have sought to understand the usage pattern of three-wheeler vehicles and the general consensus on the adoption of electric threewheelers. Using a survey-based approach, data from 534 three-wheeler drivers were collected from the major metropolitan cities of Pakistan and it was observed that there exists an opportunity to introduce electric three-wheelers to achieve holistic sustainability. Many researchers have discussed the importance of adoption of electric vehicles and their economic benefts; however, the case of threewheelers from driver/owner viewpoint has remained an unexplored avenue. To the best of authors’ knowledge, this is the frst study that describes the usage pattern of three-wheelers and performs the sustainability analysis of adoption of three-wheeler vehicles in Pakistan, and it can be said with confdence that the results can be extended to other countries with similarity in socioeconomic demography. The higher price point of the electric or hybrid threewheeler will not afect the buyer as the investment can easily be recouped within 13 months if the three-wheeler is bought on lump sum basis, whereas the return period is 16 months if the electric or hybrid three-wheeler is bought through a government loan scheme. The adoption of electric three-wheelers will result in improved environmental performance as on average 3–6 tons of CO2 emissions is produced from a single three-wheeler throughout the year at a driving cycle of 101–150 km a day for 6 days a week. With more than 100,000 three-wheelers running across the country,

1 Introduction

2 On Experiential Lessons in University Education

3 Survey and Results

4 Verification of Design Proposal

5 Design Proposal

6 Conclusion

7 References

In product design education, it is necessary to design the existing modeling method considering the possibility that the problem in interaction between other people and product occurs in all kinds of places. As a preliminary investigation, we thought that we might be able to offer new value after interactive methods practical using.” Consider the user when devising methods of gathering and providing information”, “Make it a seemingly everyday product that gets people excited when displaying information”, and “Figure out how to prevent the user from becoming overly passive toward the product” were the three points given attention during development. In addition, we made a travel map by contrasting my experience by conducting a hearing survey to find out what the student’s work is, which is struggling in writing and hard work in modeling. The purpose of this study is to establish a foundation through modeling support materials, to challenge free molding, to raise awareness of modeling, and to improve the formative power.

Introduction

There are measuring of human behaviors, connecting that collection of data to the network, and then analyzing much of that information. However, collection of unrelated information may cause obstacles in product design. It is for this reason that a focus on information automatically gathered by the product without any serious consideration of the human conduct is a problem. It is also important to educate the design of the product by actively acting in consideration of human behavior and thinking, rather than providing one-sided information. It is also possible to imagine that problems in the interaction between people and the product which until now would have been inconceivable could arise in all kinds of places. We thought there we might be able to provide some new value We’ve seen after extensively examining the realm of interactive methods in this investigation. We found that I did not acquire the basics in the two years of model production from the students’ awareness of model making.