As the boundaries between global markets have become more flexible and permeable (Sullivan & Arthur, 2006) and as employment relationships have become less organizationally-directed and more individually-directed, job seekers are increasingly crafting their own expatriation to take advantage of lucrative career opportunities created by a shortage of skilled professionals (Sullivan & Baruch, 2009). Meanwhile, with more than 38% of employers worldwide having difficulty filling positions due to the lack of suitable talent available in their markets (Manpower, 2015), both multinational and local organizations are increasingly relying on self-initiated expatriates (SIEs)to redress their shortage of skilled labor. In contrast with corporate expatriates, who are “sent overseas on a temporary basis to complete a time-based task or accomplish an organizational goal” (Harrison, Shaffer, & BhaskarShrinivas, 2004, p. 203), SIEs instigate their own relocation to a country of their choice to pursue cultural, personal, and career development opportunities (Jokinen, Brewster, & Suutari, 2008; Myers & Pringle, 2005; Tharenou, 2015), often with no definite time frame in mind (Andresen, Bergdolt, Margenfeld, & Dickmann, 2014; Suutari & Brewster, 2000). SIEs are not assigned to an international position, nor are their relocations pre-arranged by a multinational organization (Cerdin & Selmer, 2014; Richardson & Mallon, 2005). Consequently, they generally receive limited or no pre-departure training, preparation, or associated benefits and compensation packages for their expatriation (Howe-Walsh & Schyns, 2010). Indeed, they often fund their own relocation and may face more structural barriers and career constraints such as difficulties or long waiting times to obtain visas and work permits in some host countries (Al Ariss & Özbilgin, 2010).

SIEs are generally highly educated professionals who can add significantly to an organization’s talent pool by bringing to their employer a particular set of international understandings and capabilities (Cerdin, Diné, & Brewster, 2014; Cerdin & Selmer, 2014). Employed by local or international companies in the host country, SIEs are considered an attractive alternative to traditional corporate expatriates and they may have certain comparative advantages (Tharenou, 2013). For instance, as local hires with nonlocal perspectives and greater global competence andsophistication, SIEs are often considered a vehicle for facilitating cross-cultural understanding and an international outlook in their workplaces (Vaiman, Haslberger, & Vance, 2015). In addition, as a local hire without the traditional expatriate’s elite status, SIEs provide a contribution to HR and talent management in an environment that is often marked by potential tensions between traditional expatriates and locals (Toh & DeNisi, 2003). Thus, the effective management and retention of SIEs is an important issue for organizations.