Abstract

Introduction

Literature review

Electric vehicles — key concepts

Overview of hybrid three‑wheeler

Current state of the art of electric three‑wheeler

Policy gap

Methods

Duration

Rickshaw cost

Usage statistics

Expenditures and earnings

Sustainability analysis

Discussion

Reduced GHG emissions for environmental sustainability

Development of indigenous technology

Government easy loan scheme

Poverty amelioration for economic sustainability

Easily available charging stations

Promoting gender equality

Conclusions

Declarations

References

Abstract

     Transportation sector is one of the major contributors to GHG emissions, and it is essential to investigate the role of electric vehicles in economic and environmental performance of developing countries. In this research work, the authors seek to investigate the usage pattern of three-wheeler vehicle by taking a Pakistan-based survey approach and analyzing the responses from various three-wheeler drivers across the country. The survey results indicate that the adoption of hybrid and electric three-wheelers in Pakistan would be welcomed by the users due to increased economic benefits, despite having a high initial capital cost. On an average basis, the regular three-wheeler is run for more than 5 days a week, 101–150 km daily across more than 10 h, and enables the owner to make around PKR 20,000–25,000 (~ US $119–US $149) after approximately PKR 15,000 (~ USD $89) is spent every month on fuel and maintenance. The adoption of hybrid or electric three-wheelers can easily improve the monthly earnings by 50%. In addition to this, the GHG emissions from the transportation sector will be considerably lowered around 3–6 tonnes of CO2 emissions per year per three-wheeler. At an investment return period of 13–16 months, the electric three-wheeler is a highly lucrative opportunity.

Introduction

     The industrial revolutions brought about a paradigm shift in the quality of lives of individuals; the world became a global village and the technological advancements resulted in extensive economic gains. However, the environmental impact of the economic gains was often overlooked and it eventually culminated in the pressing issue of climate change where the annual temperatures are forecasted to rise by 0.5–4.5 °C over the next century (GoP, 2016) if stringent measures are not taken. In this context, it is incumbent upon the stakeholders and policymakers to identify the areas where the carbon footprint can be reduced through conscious eforts. Transportation sector is one of the major contributors to environmental pollution1 and the conventional internal combustion engines require stringent protocols for curbing the environmentally detrimental greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, countries have promoted the use of electric vehicles (Kwon et al., 2020; Daina et al., 2017) to reduce the environmental impact of transportation, in addition to numerous clean energy initiatives. The commercially available electric vehicles are broadly classifed into two categories: (i) plug-in hybrid electric vehicles or PHEVs and (ii) battery electric vehicles or BEVs and share the common aim of reducing the GHG emissions by reducing or eliminating the use of fossil fuels (Cofman et al., 2017). The worldwide adoption of hybrid technology vehicles has been an outcome of spreading awareness followed by relevant actions among governments, consumers, and producers.

Conclusions

     In this research work, the authors have sought to understand the usage pattern of three-wheeler vehicles and the general consensus on the adoption of electric threewheelers. Using a survey-based approach, data from 534 three-wheeler drivers were collected from the major metropolitan cities of Pakistan and it was observed that there exists an opportunity to introduce electric three-wheelers to achieve holistic sustainability. Many researchers have discussed the importance of adoption of electric vehicles and their economic benefts; however, the case of threewheelers from driver/owner viewpoint has remained an unexplored avenue. To the best of authors’ knowledge, this is the frst study that describes the usage pattern of three-wheelers and performs the sustainability analysis of adoption of three-wheeler vehicles in Pakistan, and it can be said with confdence that the results can be extended to other countries with similarity in socioeconomic demography. The higher price point of the electric or hybrid threewheeler will not afect the buyer as the investment can easily be recouped within 13 months if the three-wheeler is bought on lump sum basis, whereas the return period is 16 months if the electric or hybrid three-wheeler is bought through a government loan scheme. The adoption of electric three-wheelers will result in improved environmental performance as on average 3–6 tons of CO2 emissions is produced from a single three-wheeler throughout the year at a driving cycle of 101–150 km a day for 6 days a week. With more than 100,000 three-wheelers running across the country,

Abstract

     A significant transformation occurs globally as transportation switches from fossil fuel-powered to zero and ultra-low tailpipe emissions vehicles. The transition to the electric vehicle requires an infrastructure of charging stations (CSs) with information technology, ingenious, distributed energy generation units, and favorable government policies. This paper discusses the key factors when planning electric vehicle charging infrastructure. This paper provides information about planning and technological developments that can be used to improve the design and implementation of charging station infrastructure. A comprehensive review of the current electric vehicle scenario, the impact of EVs on grid integration, and Electric Vehicle optimal allocation provisioning are presented. In particular, this paper analyzes research and developments related to charging station infrastructure, challenges, and efforts to standardize the infrastructure to enhance future research work. In addition, the optimal placement of rapid charging stations is based on economic benefits and grid impacts. It also describes the challenges of adoption. On the other hand, future trends in the field, such as energy procurement from renewable sources and cars’ benefits to grid technology, are also presented and discussed.

Introduction

     The escalation in need for conventional energy sources has caused multiple outcomes that negatively affect the environment. Resources are depleted, and CO2 is released in high amounts, causing the greenhouse effect and undesirable global warming (Wang and Cheng, 2020). As a result of the Paris Agreement, CO2 emissions were reduced, and the planet’s temperature was controlled (Saerbeck et al., 2020). Clean energy resources and related technologies have been developed to mitigate these problems. Although technological advancements have significantly reduced greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, about one-quarter of these emissions come from the sector (Napoli et al., 2019). According to Outlook (2010), the growing population and freight movements will contribute to a 77% increase in transportation by 2055. Due to the above reasons, research and adoption of electric vehicles (EV) deserve exorbitant attention. By emitting very low or no tailpipe emissions and making very little noise, electric vehicles significantly reduce traffic congestion and contribute to a healthier living environment (Sanchez-Sutil et al., 2015, Abid et al., 2022, Huang et al., 2022, Chakir et al., 2022, Lan et al., 2022, Soares et al., 2022, Guo and Zhao, 2015). As a result of this transition to zero-emission vehicles, the automotive industry is switching to zero-emission vehicles (Bräunl et al., 2020, Domínguez-Navarro et al., 2019). Approximately 1.5 million new battery electric vehicles (BEV) have been added to the global fleet of BEVs (Martins et al., 2021) in 2019, with approximately 4.8 million BEVs in use globally.

Conclusion

     The popularity of electric vehicles is expected to grow significantly in the next decade due to technological progress, charging infrastructure, and grid integration. Furthermore, further technical improvements such as intelligent charging infrastructure, reliable communication systems, and coordinated charging systems are essential for EVs with distributed generators to achieve the maximum benefits. A future grid technology based on the Energy Internet can enable the electrical grid to become fully automated with advanced energy management systems. A discussion of EV charging and grid integration infrastructure is presented in this paper. EVs and their charging infrastructure must have unified norms and standards worldwide to gain popularity in the market. Future researchers will be given a clear picture of the specification requirements for EV charging and grid integration based on our discussion of the most prominent standards. In addition, different aspects of the existing charging and grid integration infrastructure are examined rigorously in terms of their advantages and disadvantages, including power, communication, control, and coordination. Besides suggestions for future research, this paper also includes perspectives on overcoming current challenges. It is evident from the discussion of the prospects of EVs that a review of this area is necessary. With this review, researchers and engineers will clearly understand the current state of EV charging and grid integration research.

Abstract

Keywords

References

Abstract

The number of electric vehicle batteries is expected to increase. Their integration into circular economy requires their recollection at end-of-life. Decision makers need tools to determine suitable locations of recollection centers, as the decision is not trivial. Lithium batteries are hazardous materials, which require a minimization of transport duration. Here, we develop a mathematical model for locating a number of battery recollection centers. We discuss the results on the case of Germany for the time period from 2020 to 2050. The aim is to identify the influence factors on the location choice and therefore enable a founded decision.

1. Introduction

In 2019, the size of the global electric vehicle fleet was 7.2 million. Ninety-two percent of vehicles were used in the People’s Republic of China, Europe, and the United States [1]. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), in 2030 global electric vehicle sales will reach 25 million, while the stock will be 140 million units [1]. The electric vehicle market is in growth phase.

Batteries are crucial parts of electric vehicles and have become a hot topic in research and development [2]. Within the last decade the capacity density increased by 300% [3]. Global Battery Alliance predicts that total weight of endof-life (EOL) Lithium-Ion-Batteries (LIBs) will increase more than threefold between 2018 and 2025 [4]. We must prevent formation of battery landfills. Therefore, EOL vehicle batteries must become a part of a circular economy value chain.

Circularity demands for repurposing batteries to secondlife applications through remanufacturing and recycling. As an initial step, recollection is required. Locations for recollection must be determined appropriately.

The goal of this paper is to determine the locations of recollection centers by means of minimization of the transport duration.

The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we give an overview of the research about repurposing of vehicle batteries and the facility location related to EOL vehicle batteries. In Section 3, we define the problem for determination of recollection center locations, and, in Section 4, we present the mathematical model. In Section 5, we solve and discuss instances of the model based on information from Germany. In Section 6, we conclude and present further research activities.

Abstract

The potential for electric vehicles to obtain income from energy supplied to a commercial building together with revenue accruing from specific ancillary service markets in the UK is evaluated in this work. A hybrid time-series/probabilistic simulation environment using real-world data is described, which is applied in the analysis of electricity trading with vehicle-to-grid to vehicles, buildings and markets. Key parameters are found to be the electric vehicle electricity sale price, battery degradation cost and infrastructure costs. Three vehicle-to-grid scenarios are evaluated using pool vehicle trip data, market pricing index data and half-hourly electricity demand for a commercial building. Results show that provision of energy to the wholesale electricity market with additional income from the capacity market results in the greatest projected return on investment, producing an individual vehicle net present value of ∼£8400. This is over 10 years for a vehicle supplying energy three times per week to the half-hour day-ahead market and includes the cost of installing the vehicle-to-grid infrastructure. The analysis also shows that net income generation is strongly dependent upon battery degradation costs associated with vehicle-to-grid cycling.

Introduction

In common with many other nations, the transition to a future energy system largely based on low or zero-carbon electricity for services such as heating and transport, is predicted to result in significant risks in terms of energy security of supply and cost for the UK [1]. In this context, electric Vehicles (EVs) are projected to contribute up to 60% of total new car sales in the UK by 2030 [2], thus creating significant extra demand on electricity networks, including during peak demand hours. One potential opportunity to manage increasing electricity costs and demand spikes is the utilisation of EVs to act as an aggregated energy store, providing peak shaving or demand shifting to both local buildings and to the power system when demand is high. This is facilitated through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, which allows energy to flow both to and from the vehicle, facilitated by a bi-directional power converter. In recent years, an increase in the number of V2G systems in Japan occurred as a result of grid insecurity after the Fukushima disaster in 2011 [3–5]. As such, V2G can help provide a means of powering buildings from a portable battery store, which can be re-charged at a different location on a regular basis [5]. Such concerns are of lesser relevance in the UK however, where research indicates V2G uptake will predominantly be related to system economics and CO2 emissions as opposed to grid security [6–10].

Abstract

Efficient electric vehicle (EV) scheduling is a multi-objective optimization problem with conflicting customer and system operator interests, especially during vehicle-to-grid implementations. Economic charging while minimizing battery degradation and maintaining system load profiles couple the interests of these two entities. This paper focuses on identifying the relationships between these objectives and proposes to use an augmented epsilon-constrain (AUGMECON) based technique to implement two-way and three-way multi-objective optimizations. The importance of using these objectives in peak-shaving and valley-filling for an aggregated (residential) EV fleet is discussed. The proposed solution provides a look-ahead strategy into effective EV scheduling by co-optimizing multiple objectives. To provide operational guidance to utilities and customers, an optimal solution may be selected from those represented by the Pareto fronts.

Introduction

COMMERCIALIZATION and adoption of electric vehicles (EV) in the automobile market has raised concerns over their uncontrolled charging demands and their impact of the present electrical power system to serve the increasing load demand efficiently. Increases in EV load may lead to network congestion, high losses, thermal stresses, and require network reinforcements, in addition to higher operating costs at peak demands. Therefore, scheduling and control of the EV load is essential for the economic operation of the power system. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) operations of the EVs impose additional problems due to power injection into the electric grid traditionally designed for one-way power flow. Apart from the technical challenges, well designed financial models and transactive energy frameworks are required to make V2G a feasible and lucrative option [1]-[3].

Governments across the world are trying to reduce air emissions through various pledges, directives and regulations. The transport sector alone is responsible for 25.3 percent of the EU’s Green House Gas (GHG) (European Union, 2015) emissions, while road transport itself contributes to almost 72 percent of the EU GHG transport sector emissions (European Union, 2015). Furthermore, road transport contributes globally to 10 percent of total GHG emissions (OECD, 2009). As a response to the impact that the transport sector has to the environment, the EU has introduced various policies, including aiming at making the sector more competitive in the future while creating growth and providing employment. One of these main driving policies, the 2011 Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area (European commission, 2011), aim at shaping the future of the transport sector by increasing sustainability and competitiveness of the transport system through the reduction of GHGs, better energy efficiency, and the use of alternative fuels and energy sources. The White Paper also sets as a target the reduction of GHG emissions to 20 percent below their 2008 level by 2030 for the transport sector. As a response to the European Union’s heavy dependency on oil products, the European Commission introduced in 2015 the Energy Union package (European Commission, 2015), aiming at providing secure, sustainable, competitive and affordable energy to EU consumers. Disturbingly the following figures present how much the EU is dependent on hydrocarbons with 94 percent of transport relying on oil products out of which 90 percent is imported (European Commission, 2015). Reference to the development and deployment of alternative fuels as means to decarbonise transport and reduce oil dependency, is also made in the Clean power for Transport (European Commission, 2013) and the Directive on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure (European Parliament, 2014). Regardless, energy efficiency and the need for the EU to become a leader in renewable energies, are raised in President Junker’s agenda (Junker, 2014) not only as a climate change response mechanism, but also as a way of creating growth and jobs.

Electrification of the transport sector offers the opportunity to utilise the increasing share of renewable energy generation whilst reducing national oil dependency. Urban air pollution is also a serious concern for residents in many cities across the world. Poor air quality claims the lives of over seven million people annually worldwide [1]. Different types of electric vehicles such as Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) emit lower levels of carbon dioxide and air pollutants than conventional petrol and diesel vehicles [2,3], contributing to the decarbonisation of road transport and improving urban air quality. Growing the fleet share of these low-emission vehicles is therefore of interest to policymakers. With a larger battery and features such as regenerative braking, engine stop-start and a novel transmission system [4], hybrid and electric vehicles have a higher manufacturing cost than conventional vehicles [5]. Conversely, running costs are often lower stemming from cheaper annual fuel costs, taxes and maintenance. Many countries have offered subsidies or reduced taxes for low-emission vehicles to stimulate adoption: for example the Plug-in vehicle grant in the UK [6], the Clean vehicle rebate project in California [7] and the Green vehicle purchasing promotion measures in Japan [8]. Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) calculations can determine whether subsidies and lower running costs can offset this price premium. Vehicle ownership costs are important in vehicle adoption choice for both private and business purchases. This is evidenced by stated and revealed preference surveys (for example see Ozaki et al. [9]). Over the past decade there has been a rise in the number of vehicles bought through finance especially in the UK [10], however, the amount paid through a typical three year finance model is comparable to the vehicle depreciation (see Section 3.2). The Toyota Prius was one of the first hybrid cars developed. It was released exclusively to the Japanese market in 1997 [11]. The diversity of the hybrid market has grown such that nearly fifty different models are available in the US vehicle market from a range of brands [12]. In countries such as the UK and Japan, plateauing Prius market share may be attributed to the greater availability of different hybrid models such as the Auris, Yaris and Aqua. Evidence for this is the success of the Toyota Aqua in the Japanese market [13].

 Scheduling and Performance Analysis under a Stochastic Model for Electric Vehicle Charging Stations

مقاله سال 2017

 مجله امگا – Omega

Electric vehicles (EVs) are considered to be the most significant green transportation alternative for the foreseeable future. Recent studies concerning EVs address many aspects, including EV development, the social impact of substituting fossil-fuel vehicles, and public policy that enables the spread of EVs. Although government-provided motivation and environmental benefits exist, EV implementation has not been significantly fast. One of the primary restrictions of the public spread of EVs is the lack of EV battery charging infrastructures [8, 9, 17]. In conventional battery charging technology, slow (regular) chargers require an average of three to six hours in order to fully charge an empty battery for common-size EVs, whereas fast chargers can substantially reduce the charging time to less than half an hour. However, high-speed charging facilities incur significantly higher costs and still require substantially more service time than conventional fuel-based automobile stations. When compared with existing gas stations, the battery charging time required for even fast charging equipment can be considered too long by many drivers. Therefore, the efficient operation of battery charging stations is an important factor in the acceleration of the public spread of EVs.

Some recent publications examine the strategic levels of EV battery charging stations, such as stochastic demands, optimal locations, and spread [6, 12, 13, 14]. However, analytic or computational approaches to operational levels, such as system efficiency and charge scheduling performance, remain relatively unexplored [2, 15, 18].

This paper proposes a more realistic stochastic model for EV battery charging stations. Two typical charge scheduling methods, the first-in-first-served (FIFO) and processor sharing (PS),are considered. The framework for the incoming stream of EVs under the proposed stochastic model addresses the time-varying behavior of EV arrivals by exploiting a flexible Poisson process of the Markov-modulated Poisson process (MMPP). Performance measures for the charging scheduling are analytically derived by obtaining stationary distributions for the states that account for the status of inbound EVs, waiting time distributions, and joint distributions of parking time and charged electricity amount during random parking times.