AiV-1 is considered an emerging human enteric pathogens and foodborne transmission has been documented as an important source of exposure for humans, chiefly in relation to non-safe, risky food habits. We surveyed the presence of AiV-1 in retail shellfish, including oysters and mussles, identifying the virus in 3/170 (1.8%) of the analysed samples. The AiV-1 positive samples were of different geographic origin. Upon sequence analysis of a portion of the 3CD junction region, two AiV strains identified from harvesting areas in Northern Italy were characterised as genotype B and displayed 99-100% identity at the nucleotide level to other AiV-1 strains detected in sewages in Central Italy in 2012, suggesting that such strains are stably circulating in Italian ecosystems. Interestingly, a strain identified from mussles harvested in Southern Italy could not be characterised firmly, as inferred in the Bayesian analysis and by sequence comparison, indicating that different AiV strains are also circulating in Italy. Viral contamination in retail shellfish challenges the microbiological guidelines for food control and requires the development and optimization of additional diagnostic and prevention strategies.

Introduction

Aichi virus, a human enteric virus of the genus Kobuvirus, family Picornaviridae, was first recognized in 1989 as the cause of oyster-associated non-bacterial gastroenteritis in humans in Aichi Prefecture, Japan (Yamashita et al., 1991). The Kobuvirus genus includes three species, Aichivirus A (formerly Aichi virus) (Yamashita et al., 1998), Aichivirus B (formerly Bovine kobuvirus) (Yamashita et al., 2003) and Aichivirus C (porcine kobuvirus) (Reuter et al., 2009). The species Aichivirus A includes the prototype Aichi virus 1 (AiV-1) identified in humans, along with canine kobuvirus 1 (Kapoor et al., 2011; Li et al., 2011), feline kobuvirus 1 (Chung et al., 2013) and murine kobuvirus 1 (Phan et al., 2011). AiV-1 is a small non-enveloped virus of approximately 27–30 nm in diameter with a single85 stranded, positive polarity RNA genome of 8,280 nucleotides (nt) in length. The single large open reading frame encodes a polyprotein of 2,432 amino acids that is cleaved into the structural proteins 87 VP0, VP3 and VP1 and non-structural proteins 2A, 2B, 2C, 3A, 3B, 3C and 3D (Sasaki et al., 2001; Yamashita et al., 1998). Upon sequencing of a short genome fragment of the 3C and 3D (3CD) junction region, AiV-1 has been further classified into at least 2 main phylogenetic lineages or genotypes, indicated with the letters A and B (Di Martino et al., 2013; Le Guyader et al., 2008; Yamashita et al., 2003; Yamashita 92 et al., 2000) and this is exploited for epidemiological investigations and molecular tracking of sporadic cases and outbreaks of gastro-enteritis. An AiV-1 strain identified in France has been proposed as a distinct lineage/genotype, C (Ambert-Balay et al., 2008). AiV-1 has been suspected to play a role as human gastroenteric pathogen. AiV-1-related clinical signs and symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and fever (Yamashita et al., 1991).

The enzyme catalase is known to catalyse the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water. Hydrogen peroxide metabolism is mainly regulated by this enzyme. Catalase is a common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms. It has one of the highest turnovers of all enzymes as it has the capacity to decompose more than one million molecules of hydrogen peroxide, per molecule of enzyme. Catalase has been used as an important enzyme in many biotechnological areas including bioremediation. This paper gives a review of its use and application in the field of bioremediation as an indicator of hydrocarbon degradation in soil (an important aspect in bioremediation of crude oil pollution), as a provider of oxygen in aerobic bioremediation process and in the removal of H2O2 from bleaching industry effluent and also its potential use in the food industry.

Introduction

Catalase (EC 1.11.1.6) enzyme is an oxidoreductase enzyme as it plays a crucial role in quenching the reactive oxygen species (ROS), i.e. hydrogen peroxide, often produced as a by-product of aerobic respiration (Beers and Sizer., 1952). Hence it acts as an antioxidant and protects the cell against oxidative stress (Abbott et al., 2009, Kirkman et al., 1987). The enzyme is found in a wide range of aerobic and anaerobic organisms. Catalase has one of the highest turnover number as one molecule of enzyme hydrolysing over a million molecules of the substrate i.e. hydrogen peroxide per second. New applications for catalases are constantly emerging thanks to their high turnover number (Lončar and Fraaije 2015, Zamocky et al., 1999), distinct evolutionary origin, reasonably simple (Alptekin et al. 2008) and well-defined reaction mechanisms (Baeza et al., 2013). The basic mechanism of the working of this enzyme involves the breakdown and subsequent breakdown of the reactive oxygen specie i.e. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into oxygen and water thus relieving the oxidative stress caused by this substrate as depicted in the following reaction (Barynin et al., 2001). Catalase is a tetramer of four polypeptide chains, each over 500 amino acids long. It contains four porphyrin heme (iron) groups that allow the enzyme to react with the hydrogen peroxide. Catalase has a fairly broad range of working from 4-11 optimum pH (Beers, 1961; Calera et al., 2000; Correia et al., 1994; Diaz et al., 2012). Catalase is usually located in a cellular, bipolar environment organelle called the peroxisome (Fita et al., 1985). As this enzyme is found in mainly all organisms (aerobic and anaerobic), it has been exploited in many applications including food processing, textile, paper, pharmaceutical industry and also in the field of bioremediation as one of the upcoming areas of its application (Gromada et al., 1997; Hussein 2012; . Beers et al., 1952; Youn et al 1995).This paper intends to give an account of how this enzyme has been exploited in the process of bioremediation in order to clean the environment of unwanted substances.

Abstract

Probiotic based products are associated with many health benefits. However, the main problem is the low survival of these microorganisms in food products and in gastrointestinal tract. Providing probiotics with a physical barrier is an efficient approach to protect microorganisms and to deliver them into the gut. In our opinion, microencapsulation is one of the most efficient methods, and has been under especial consideration and investigation. However, there are still many challenges to overcome with respect to the microencapsulation process. This review focuses mainly on the methodological approach of probiotic encapsulation including materials and results obtained using encapsulated probiotic in food matrices and different pathologies in animal models.

Industrial relevance

he inclusion of probiotics into food matrices is one of the most challenging lines of research in food technology. Probiotics in general, and some strains in particular, have a low resistance to different environmental conditions, such as oxygen, light or temperature. Thus, the protection and isolation of the microorganism from the food matrix and the environmental condition are crucial for the development of new probiotic food. In this sense, microencapsulation has gained an increasing interest, since it has been demonstrated that it could protect the bacteria not only during its production process but also during its incorporation into the food matrix, also with protective effects during storage. In conclusion, microencapsulation is of great interest since it could allow a wider application of probiotics in the food market, actually restricted to fresh or powder products.

 Food-producing animals (e.g., cattle, chickens, pigs, and turkeys) are the major reservoirs for many foodborne pathogens such as Campylobacter species, non-Typhi 30 serotypes of Salmonella enterica, Shiga toxin-producing strains of Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes. The zoonotic potential of foodborne pathogens and their ability to produce toxins causing diseases or even death are sufficient to recognize the seriousness of 33the situation. Foodborne pathogens cause millions of cases of sporadic illness and chronic 34 complications, as well as large and challenging outbreaks in many countries and between countries. The magnitude of this problem is demonstrated by the significant proportion of the 1.5 billion diarrheal episodes in children less than 3 years of age that are caused by enteropathogenic microorganisms, which results in more than 3 million deaths per year (EFSA-ECDC, 2016). Surveys estimate that in the United States alone, bacterial enteric pathogens cause 9.4 million episodes of foodborne illness in humans, 55,961 hospitalizations, and 1,351 deaths each year (Scallan et al., 2011). However, it is estimated that the reported incidence of food-borne disease represents less than 1% to 10% of the real incidence (Scallan et al., 2011). The importance of food-producing animals as carriers of pathogenic bacteria is real; for example, beef is reported to be the vector of 7% of the 1.7 million cases of foodborne disease that was recorded during 1996 to 2000 in England and Wales (Anderson et al., 2009).

در مقاله پیش رو که از دیدگاه غذایی و بیماری شناسی بحث می کند، ممکن است چنین به نظر برسد که افزایش وقوع بیماری های مزمن غیر واگیر و همچنین التهابی با عادت های غذایی بد، کمبود فیبر در مواد غذایی، پر چرب و سرشار از کربوهیدرات های ساده و فراوری شده، در ارتباط است. این موضوع تاکیدی بر افزایش گسترش بیماری، اهمیت فلور میکروبی روده و مکانیزم کنترل فعال فرایندهای میکروبی و مدلسازی پاسخ های ایمنی است. بنابراین، این نگرانی از دوره بازسازی و حفظ فلور روده و ذخیره مواد پروبیوتیک همواره وجود داشته که موجب بقا و استفاده از مزایای روده سالم می شود. به این ترتیب، محققان و فعالان صنایع غذایی از گسترش تولید محصولات پریبیوتیک حمایت می کنند و سوای از قدرت رقابت بازار همواره به دنبال ارتقای مزایای سلامت، درمان و جلوگیری از بیماری آن ها هستند. این مقاله در برگیرنده مباحثی در رابطه با اثرات فیزیولوژیکی پروبیوتیک های شناخته شده، و قابلیت آن ها در تخمیر باکتریایی، محصولات جدید و ارائه روش هایی برای شناسایی عملکردهای پری و پروبیوتیک است.

مقدمه
تولید غذاهای کاربردی حاوی مواد پریبیوتیک، در زمانی که صنایع غذایی در سال های اخیر پیشرفت زیادی داشته و یک بازار بسیار امیدوار کننده است، نه تنها به دلایل اقتصادی بلکه از نظر علمی نیز مزایای زیادی دارد. مصرف کنندگان از رابطه بین تغذیه مناسب آگاه هستند و بطور فزاینده ای در جستجوی افزودنی های غذایی طبیعی و بهره مندی از مزایای سلامتی آن ها هستند. با هدف رضایتمندی بازار، برخی مواد پریبیوتیک، بخصوص اینولین و فروکتولیگوساکارید ، با دامنه وسیعی از مواد غذایی و نوشیدنی ها که بخش بزرگی از یک وعده غذایی روزانه هستند مشارکت می کنند از جمله آن ها می توان نان ها، غلات، رژیم های مکمل و غیره را نام برد. این مصرف کنندگان رو به رشد، می توانند در درک طعم این مواد غذایی و افزایش مزایای این مواد در سلامتی آن ها شریک باشند.