Abstract

It is imperative for residents to have access to safe facilities after an earthquake. This ensures the safety and well-being of individuals while minimizing the risks posed by aftershocks. This research has used multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) and network-based analysis to select and allocate emergency shelters (ESs). Several ESs are initially chosen as potential candidates. A weighting process is then used to evaluate various criteria, including proximity to the fault, fire stations, hospitals, main roads, the area of the ESs, and the population’s vulnerability. The centers are evaluated and ranked using the CRiteria Importance Through Intercriteria Correlation (CRITIC) and Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) methods. The Maximized Weighted Capacitated Coverage with a Radius (MWCCR) problem is used to address location and allocation issues for varying ESs using option rankings. The findings showed that increasing the number of centers does not always lead to a higher level of service delivery, assuming a consistent service delivery radius. The distribution of the centers is more crucial. Additionally, line density analysis is used to evaluate traffic conditions in the study area, assisting in finding areas with heavy traffic flow. When the radius of access for ESs is assumed to be small, the main roads bear less additional traffic, and with the increase of the radius, the amount of traffic on the main roads gradually increases. This is valuable information for emergency services following an earthquake.

Introduction

Earthquakes, as natural disasters, can cause extensive damage. Due to their potential to cause widespread damage to critical urban infrastructure, they are a significant challenge for large cities. Therefore, organizing crisis planning, including implementing policies that govern urban decisions, is very important to respond effectively to earthquakes [1], [2]. After an earthquake, one of the priorities is to quickly and safely evacuate citizens to protect them from potential hazards such as earthquakes, fires, and the spread of infectious diseases [3]. Emergency shelters (ESs) are safe places with necessary services for evacuating citizens during earthquakes [4]. Therefore, it is crucial to construct secure and appropriately located emergency evacuation facilities to mitigate risks following an earthquake. These facilities should have sufficient resources to support affected citizens [5]. Researchers face challenges in selecting the appropriate location for emergency evacuation due to multiple criteria. The city officials should allocate a budget to adapt the facilities and create a wide range of services in these centers. Therefore, it is crucial to determine the optimal location and quantity of ESs to minimize costs. Selecting these centers’ locations involves a location–allocation problem with two components. A positioning component determines the placement of ESs and outlines how these centers serve the population in the allocation section [6], [7]. Therefore, to determine appropriate locations for ESs, a solution must be selected to address the location allocation problem.

Various approaches have been used in studies on location allocation for ES planning. Some approaches have focused on allocating ESs to citizens in a single-objective manner, considering only one criterion, such as time or distance. Many studies commonly use single-objective techniques such as p-median, p-center, and maximum coverage. Multi-objective and hierarchical models have been used in some studies. Additionally, geographic information systems (GIS) methods, such as the Voronoi diagram, can be used [8], [9].

Conclusion

ESs are essential for promoting peace and ensuring the safety of individuals during earthquakes and potential aftershocks. These centers’ locating and coverage areas should be optimized to prioritize citizen safety and maximize accessibility. This study aimed to identify and allocate ESs in a part of Tehran’s 12th district. Potential ESs were initially selected based on specific criteria, including their proximity to fault lines, fire stations, hospitals, main roads, ES areas, and population vulnerability. The criteria were weighted, and the centers were ranked using the CRITIC and TOPSIS methods.

According to the results obtained using the CRITIC method, the criteria of distance from the hospital and fire department had the highest weight (0.19). In contrast, the area criteria had the lowest weight (0.12). The TOPSIS method has been used to rank the ESs by assigning weights to the criteria. The ranked centers were utilized to address the issue of location and allocation. In the location problem, priority was given to centers with higher ratings. The location and allocation issues have been resolved for different numbers of ESs. Based on the results, the service delivery radius is assumed to remain constant. Simply increasing the number of centers does not guarantee better service delivery. The distribution is crucial. When the coverage radius was set to 500 m, increasing the number of ESs decreased the occupancy percentage of the centers. This indicates that the centers were not fully utilized because they were more than 500 meters away from the residents. If the coverage radius is small, the distribution of centers becomes more significant. This requires considering multiple centers in different locations. In cases where the radius was set at 1000 and 1500 m, there was an increase in the percentage of service delivery and occupancy of ESs. The service coverage percentage within a 1500-meter radius was only about 60%, well below the desired value of 80%. It is possible to expand the distance to increase this case’s coverage. It is important to note that as the distance from centers increases, quick and easy access becomes more complex, which is crucial during times of crisis.

Abstract

Recently, the defense industry in South Korea has been regarded with strong suspicion since a company responsible for producing parts for the aviation sector is being investigated for cost irregularities. Many people are concerned about these issues and the government is distrustful of defense industries. If the current situation continues, the defense industry market in South Korea (henceforth “South Korea”) will be hard to maintain. The South Korean government will have to rely on importing from abroad instead of buying products in the local market. This study looked at the sustainability of earnings management adopted in the defense industry of South Korea, exploring options for the government to maintain the scheme’s soundness. In particular, we used Kothari’s discretionary accrual as a proxy of earnings management and OLS method to analyze the relationship between them. The results are as follows. Firstly the firms with a high percentage of defense sales showed significant discretionary accruals; the higher the profit, the more likely it was that earnings adjustments were made; secondly, firms that had been certified by the government for defense cost-management were proven to be effective, because the earnings management activities were low compared to those of firms that did not have the defense cost-management certification; lastly, based on the accounting rules for the cost of defense products, it was found that significant results confirming defense firms were exercising their influence, through earnings management, on the improvement of the government system.

Introduction

In South Korea, defense scandals have recently become problematic [1]. The company that produces parts for the aviation sector is being investigated for cost irregularities. There is mounting suspicion that illegal costs in the defense industry are rising. Many people are concerned about these issues and the government is distrustful of defense industries. If the situation continues, the defense industry market in South Korea will be hard to sustain. Preventing earnings management in the defense industry is thought to be the first step to achieving transparency to help strengthen South Korean military power. The South Korean government will need to rely on importing instead of buying products in the local market. In this study, the relationship between the characteristics of domestic defense firms and earnings management in South Korea were examined.

We studied the unique cost structure of the defense industry, which compensates for profits based on the costs incurred, and examined the cost-management certification system in terms of the share of defense sales, the political cost hypothesis, and the characteristics of defense firms arising from the asymmetry of cost information between the government, which is the consumer, and the defense industry, which is the supplier.

Conclusions

This study aimed to examine the earnings management behavior of firms in the defense industry in South Korea and find a solution for the government to reduce the earnings management. The results of the study are as follows.

First, firms with higher defense product sales increased their degree of earnings management. This differs from the study by Kim et al. [13] that showed that the higher the reliance on the defense industry is, the lower the reported profit is recorded. That is, for defense firms, a profit-centered system does not produce only one result, but creates different earnings management systems that can increase and/or reduce reported profit.

Second, the defense industry cost-management system, which shares cost management information about defense firms, was examined in relation to earnings management. We found that the level of earnings management was lower for the companies with the certified system than those without the system. This can be interpreted in two ways. Firstly, for a company that has the certified defense cost-management system, due to the information asymmetry between the government and the company about the decrease in costs after the implementation of the system, the level of earnings management decreased; secondly, the firms with the certified system have already received the cost-related certification from the government because they did not engage in earnings management activities. Of these two interpretations, the latter is valid because the system for cost control in defense firms has been in effect since 2012. However, because there is not enough data (4 firms in 2012, 9 in 2013, and 12 in 2014), the effectiveness of the test could not be measured.

Abstract

     The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the vulnerability of frontline employee (FLEs) to infections and other hazards and highlighted the importance of workplace safety practices (WSP) for service organizations. In response to the critical issue of service safety, we developed and empirically tested a model proposing that WSPs negatively influence FLE perceptions of pandemic related threats and positively influence their perceptions of organizational supportiveness (POS). In turn, these perceptions have time-lagged effects on two aspects of FLE wellbeing—reduced emotional exhaustion and increased work engagement. Utilizing data from a two-wave (separated by a month) survey panel consisting of 310 FLEs across the United States, we found evidence for all hypothesized relationships. We discuss the practical and theoretical implications of our findings and provide suggestions for future research on service safety on the organizational frontlines.

Literature review and hypotheses

     We propose and empirically test a model of FLE workplace safety exploring the relationship between FLE perceptions of WSPs on two specific wellbeing outcomes – emotional exhaustion and work engagement, with these relationships fully mediated by job demands and resources, respectively. Our conceptual framework represented in Fig. 1 proposes that WSPs (both, essential and discretionary) negatively influence FLE perceptions of risks/hazards related to COVID-19 and positively influence their perceptions of organizational support. In other words, in workplaces where there is a focus on implementing both, essential and discretionary safety practices, FLEs perceive fewer risks/hazards and higher levels of organizational supportiveness. Consistent with JD-R theory, risks/hazards are experienced by FLEs as job demands that drain their psychological resources, while organizational support is experienced as a job resource that helps replenish this resource loss (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). Further, job demands result in emotional exhaustion, while job resources translate into FLE work engagement. Our framework and the resultant hypotheses are described in the following section.

Results

     Descriptive statistics, reliability estimates, average variance explained (AVE), and inter-construct correlations are provided in Table 2. This data can be used to establish the integrity of the measurement model (Fornell & Bookstein, 1982). Further, Cronbach alpha statistics exceeded the 0.7 threshold recommended by Nunnally and Bernstein (1967), and AVEs associated with each latent construct (see Table 2) exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.5 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Discriminant validity was also observed as the bivariate correlations did not exceed the square root of the associated AVEs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). These findings support the integrity of the measurement model.

Highlights

Abstract

Keywords

1. Introduction

2. Safety economics

3. Why safety economics?

4. Approaches in safety economics

5. Paths for future research

6. Conclusions

Declaration of Competing Interest

References

Abstract

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the trade-off between economics and epidemic prevention (safety) has become painfully clear worldwide. This situation thus highlights the significance of balancing the economy with safety and health. Safety economics, considering the interdependencies between safety and micro-economics, is ideal for supporting this kind of decision-making. Although economic approaches such as cost-benefit analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis have been used in safety management, little attention has been paid to the fundamental issues and the primary methodologies in safety economics. Therefore, this paper presents a systematic study on safety economics to analyze the foundational issues and explore the possible approaches. Firstly, safety economics is defined as a transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary field of academic research focusing on the interdependencies and coevolution of micro-economies and safety. Then we explore the role of safety economics in safety management and production investment. Furthermore, to make decisions more profitable, economic approaches are summarized and analyzed for decision-making about prevention investments and/or safety strategies. Finally, we discuss some open issues in safety economics and possible pathways to improve this research field, such as security economics, risk perception, and multi-criteria analysis.

1. Introduction

It has been witnessed in the COVID-19 pandemic that governments are often not able to minimize both deaths due to the coronavirus and economic loss (Anderson et al., 2020). Prevention measures such as quarantine, social distancing, and isolation have been demonstrated to effectively contain the extent of the epidemic although they are tough to follow and maintain by a majority of the population. In China, the effectiveness of implementing these measures has been undeniable. Nonetheless, the economic costs of the pandemic and its needed mitigation measures in China are also very high (keeping mortality as low as possible is the highest priority in China). China’s GDP decreased by 6.8% in the first quarter of 2020, compared with the same period last year (Wang and Yao, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic thus highlights the role of economic factors on decisions regarding the prevention and mitigation of undesired events such as pandemics, accidents, and natural disasters.

Safety (safety-I) can be considered a condition related to the absence of accidents, losses, etc. (Leveson, 2004). Therefore, safety science aim to prevent or minimize the losses from accidents such as casualties, and damage to installations and the environment. Safety could also be understood as the antonym of risk, and “safe” can be considered a condition or situation characterized by an acceptable risk (Aven, 2014). Besides, Hollnagel (2014) defines safety (Safety-II) as the ability to succeed by performance variability and adaptation under expected and unexpected conditions. Safety I always focus on “why things go wrong” while Safety-II concerns more on “why things go right”. In that case, the purpose of safety science is to increase the probability of intended and acceptable outcomes as high as possible. Whether it is to avoid losses, reduce risks, or increase intended and acceptable outcomes, external (safety) methods and measures should be taken to obtain those objectives since safety does not naturally accompany human and production activities (Chen et al., 2021, Yang et al., 2018, Yang et al., 2020, Zeng et al., 2020, Zeng et al., 2021). For example, there are many risk reduction strategies in the chemical industry, including inherent safety, passive barriers, active barriers, emergency procedural barriers, safety culture, safety education, etc. (Khan and Amyotte, 2003, Reniers et al., 2011, Chen et al., 2020b). A set of methods, principles, and practices has been developed over the past century to identify and eliminate risks, avoid losses, and obtain acceptable outcomes.

Abstract

Keywords

1. Introduction and motivation

2. What is SI?

3. Theoretical framework for SI

4. Practical framework for SI

5. Conclusions and limitations

Declaration of Competing Interest

Acknowledgements

References

Abstract

In the age of big data, intelligence, and Industry 4.0, intelligence plays an increasingly significant role in management or, more specifically, decision making; thus, it becomes a popular topic and is recognised as an important discipline. Hence, safety intelligence (SI) as a new safety concept and term was proposed. SI aims to transform raw safety data and information into meaningful and actionable information for safety management; it is considered an essential perspective for safety management in the era of Safety 4.0 (computational safety science—a new paradigm for safety science in the age of big data, intelligence, and Industry 4.0). However, thus far, no existing research provides a framework that comprehensively describes SI and guides the implementation of SI practices in organisations. To address this research gap and to provide a framework for SI and its practice in the context of safety management, based on a systematic and comprehensive explanation on SI from different perspectives, this study attempts to propose a theoretical framework for SI from a safety management perspective and then presents an SI practice model aimed at supporting safety management in organisations.

1. Introduction and motivation

Safety management is regarded as the process of realising certain safety functions (Li and Guldenmund, 2018), and it has become an important topic both in academia and in practice over the past decades (Denton, Journal Pre-proof 2 1980; Hale, 2003; Wang et al, 2017). From an organisational perspective, safety management aims to promote organisational safety and protect people and property within the organisation from unacceptable safety risks (Li and Guldenmund, 2018). Recently, with the increasing global economic uncertainties and owing to global economy in the doldrums, safety management in most organisations is under growing pressure to perform more with less. In addition, there is a constant need to find better approaches to guarantee that safety resources are allocated as effectively as possible while maintaining good organisational safety performance (Wang et al, 2017). Thus, safety information is critical to achieving these targets; it is considered as the lifeblood of organisational safety management because safety information is necessary for effective safety risk prevention and informed safety decision making (Yang, 2012; Huang et al, 2019; Wang et al, 2019).

A combination of Geological mapping and two-dimensional electrical resistivity (2D-ER) surveys was applied to study the Unilorin Dam and its environment. The purpose of the study was to investigate the dam for structural anomalies that may compromise the purpose and safety of the dam. Field equipment for the study comprised a SuperSting R8/IP Multi-Electrodes Resistivity Meter, 84 metallic electrodes and the accessories, compass clinometer, and portable GPS equipment. Geological data were processed and plotted to obtain a Geological Map and Rosette Diagram that were used for structural interpretations. The structures interpreted include an asymmetric fold and a strike-slip fault. The 2D resistivity data were processed and tomographically inverted to obtain the resistivity models of the subsurface around the dam. Interpretations of 2D resistivity models showed that the dam reservoir floor is underlain by competent basement rocks, however, the basement rock is weathered in some places. Patches of low resistivities structures interpreted as seepages, fractures and water-saturated cavity were delineated in different sections of the dam. The surface structural elements from geological study support the subsurface structures interpreted in the 2D resistivity models. Weathered structures, fractures, and seepage in the reservoir floor constitute areas of excessive water loss in the dam. The cavity delineated in the dam foundation is a potential threat to the dam’s safety. The dam section with cavity has been referred to structural engineers for detailed study.

Introduction

Safety assessment test on civil engineering constructions such as dams, tunnels, and bridges is a necessary endeavor to forestall sudden failure and collapse of engineering infrastructure. The mechanical properties of old dams that have outlived their life span, or new dams affected by natural hazards might have suffered degradation that can cause some structural damages that may not be obvious on the surface. If such damages are not detected by routine safety checks and addressed in good time, it may deteriorates and consequently lead to the failure of the dam. A dam is a barrier constructed to slow down, direct, or obstruct the free flow of water. The purpose of dam construction includes irrigation, supply of water for human and industry uses, hydro-electric power generation, control of flood, fish rearing, recreation, and navigation (Biswas and Charttergee, 1971; Plata and Iragüen, 1992). In addition to water scarcity, dam failure can lead to flooding and monumental loss of lives and properties. The old method of dam testing for structural damages include drilling and sample testing. Usually, 250–300 mm hole(s) is drilled in some parts of the dam and the samples collected are structurally examined and tested in the laboratory. Despite the cost and time required, drilling provide limited information on the possible structural anomalies/damages in dams (Kepler et al., 2000).

In order to implement the integration management of the occupational health and safety and environment (OHSE) in an operating nuclear power plant (ONPP) in East China and help it pass the OHSAS 18001 and ISO 14001 certifications simultaneously rather than separately, an integrated management system (IMS) for OHSE in the ONPP consisting of the occupational health and safety and environment management manual (OHSEMM) and its supportive documents was established to cover the OHSAS 18001 and ISO 14001 standards and IAEA’s safety standards on management systems. The management information system for the IMS for the ONPP in East China (MISIMSONPPEC) consisting of the core zone, which includes the information-sharing platform (ISP) and the functional management system (FMS), client and background system was designed for the first time by using browser/server (B/S) structure to overcome the difficulties in implementing the IMS. The applications of the MISIMSONPPEC in the ONPP show that it helped to share and statistically analyze the OHSE data and information from the IMS, to improve the cooperation between departments, to enhance the efficiency of management, and to pass the OHSAS 18001 and ISO 14001 certifications simultaneously rather than separately; and it helped accomplish the integration management of the OHSE in the ONPP.

Introduction

The Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series (OHSAS) 18001 standard has widely been used by companies to establish the occupational health and safety management system (OHSMS) as a management tool to control occupational risks and ensure safety (BSI, 2007; Mohammadfam et al., 2016; Simon et al., 2012; Jespersen et al., 2016; Abad et al., 2013; Segarra Cañamares et al., 2017). In the meantime, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14001 standard has also widely been used by companies to establish the environmental management system (EMS) as a management tool to control and reduce their impacts on environment (ISO, 2015; Govindan et al., 2015; Oliveira et al., 2010; Oliveira and Serra Pinheiro, 2009; Fernández-Muñiz et al., 2012; Granly et al., 2014; Su et al., 2015). The implementation of OHSAS 18001 OHSMS has produced benefits such as improving communication with workers about the risks and hazards internally, ameliorating the working risks, making the workplaces healthy and safe, and establishing a positive safety culture so as to achieve a better occupational health and safety performance (Santos et al., 2013; Blewett and O’Keeffe, 2011; Ghahramani, 2016). The implementation of the ISO 14001 EMS has also produced benefits including preventing pollution and reducing waste, enhancing both environmental and companies’ performances in terms of environmental impact reduction, environmental pollution prevention and ecological efficiency improvement, generating the competitive advantages, and promoting companies’ value (Oliveira et al., 2016; Badri et al., 2012; Rino et al., 2017; Mazzi et al., 2016; Ferrón-Vílchez, 2016). Consequently, many companies in the world are using the OHSAS 18001 OHSMS and ISO 14001 EMS separately to achieve the OHSAS 18001 and the ISO 14001 certifications (Bernardo, 2014; Simon et al., 2011). However, more and more companies have also found that using the OHSAS 18001 OHSMS and ISO 14001 EMS separately often results in counterproductive consequence, low efficiency and effectiveness, high cost and unnecessary bureaucracy (Oliveira, 2013; Nunhes et al., 2016). As a result, considering that the OHSAS 18001 and ISO 14001 standards are similar in structure and contents and have the common elements including policy, roles, responsibilities and authorities, planning, objectives, resources, communication, documentation, operation, emergency preparedness and response, performance, internal audit, management review, monitoring, measurement, and corrective and preventive actions, there has been a tendency to establish and implement an integrated management system (IMS) to cover the OHSAS 18001 and ISO 14001 standards (Hamidi et al., 2012; Rebelo et al., 2014; Karapetrovic and Casadesús, 2009).

Due to strict government regulations, consumer awareness, and market forces, business firms in the current environment cannot be strictly motivated by profit, they must be concerned with the natural environment and the society as well (Marshall et al., 2015). That is, firms today need to actively manage a triple bottom line (Elkington, 1998), as opposed to only economic profit. Astute management of social equity and human capital necessitates that a firm ensure a safe and healthy working environment for its employees. In this manner, a firm can fulfill its obligation to society in general and its employees in particular. Operations managers are increasingly concerned with workplace safety since it can have a significant impact on cost, delivery, and quality (Brown et al., 2000). Beyond its impact on employee morale and internal operations, a negative workplace safety incident may also cause significant damage to a firm’s reputation. Government agencies and financial markets have the potential to punish a company for a failure to provide safe working conditions. In addition, customer expectations regarding workplace safety have recently become an important issue in the context of social responsibility. It is therefore imperative that firms ensure workplace safety as part of their overall operational improvement program. Doing so, the firm can develop in a sustainable way – increasing profit while boosting workforce motivation and morale. To ensure a safe and healthy work environment, the US Congress created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in 1970. OSHA has the authority to create workplace safety standards and to penalize employers for safety incidents, noncompliance, or situations where inspectors find the workplace unsafe or hazardous for employees. Despite a limited enforcement budget and historically minimal penalties, compliance with OSHA regulations is typically high (Weil, 1996). To address situations where compliance is lacking, a handful of studies investigated firm performance subsequent to OSHA-levied sanctions (e.g. Davidson et al., 1994; Fry and Lee, 1989; Viscusi, 1979). However, these studies use data that predate significant increases in the value of OSHA-levied fines in 1990; furthermore, they focus on the market’s reaction to the OSHA-levied fine rather than the initial announcement of a negative workplace safety event. This is an important gap in the literature since OSHA’s power to regulate, inspect, and penalize firms was significantly increased again in 2016 (Berzon, 2015; Hilton, 2016; Paranac, 2016). This paper explores the impact of negative workplace safety announcements on firm performance with particular emphasis on the evolving view such incidents have on stock performance. We will analyze the issue from the perspective of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and explore ways supply chain managers can contribute to improve firm performance through the development of safe working environments. We begin with a review of the workplace safety literature. We then describe the methodology followed to collect and analyze the data. Results from our analysis are then presented and discussed. We conclude with a discussion of the results in the context of social responsibility and sustainable operations.

In recent years, safety problems in oil drilling have obtained many concerns. As the drilling industry involves complex and hazardous activities, it is of great importance to assess attendant risks in which human factors make up a large proportion. The hoisting and lifting systems are one of the most important components in oil drilling industry; measures should be taken to lower the risk of human factors (Zhou et al., 2017). Many safety studies have been done in drilling industry. AmirHeidari et al. (2015) carried out a case study to assess the human factors, which are identified by what-if and structured brainstorming. Zhao et al. (2011) assessed the qualification of human factor risks associated with the drilling process based on Delphi method. Strand and Lundteigen (2016) studied classification of the human factors and put forward a relative importance of assessment criteria in each risk influencing factor. Abimbola et al. (2015) analyzed the shortcomings existing in overbalanced and underbalanced drilling technique, and proposed a Bayesian network model for managed pressure drilling risk assessment. Ataallahi and Shadizadeh (2015) studied the blowout in onshore Iranian drilling industry, and provided fuzzy method to develop the consequence of blowout for Iranian onshore drilling industry. Ramzali et al. (2015) carried out a survey on a leakage event in production phase, and assessed the barriers of the initiating event by using Event Tree Analysis. Pranesh et al. (2017) analyzed the case study of deep water horizon offshore oil platform accident, in which failures in oil and gas cementing operation exists, and concluded that this tragedy is due to complete human errors and employee’s poor leadership abilities. Researchers studied human factors from different views of classification, while the hierarchical and interactional study of human factors in drilling industry is still incomplete; moreover, there are rare studies in the safety assessment considering the interdependences between human factors in the hoisting and lifting system in oil drilling industry. It has been acknowledged that accident analysis must rely on systemic and organizational models (Rasmussen, 1997; Reason, 1997). And it is essential to choose a model before starting the investigations, according to the characteristics of the system and the nature of the accident (Chauvin et al., 2013). Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) is a generic human error framework originally developed for US military aviation as a tool for the analysis of the human factors aspects of accidents. The HFACS is perhaps the most widely used human factors accident analysis framework, including shipping accidents (Akyuz, 2017), mining (Patterson and Shappell, 2010), and construction (Garrett and Teizer, 2009). Wiegmann and Shappell (2001) suggested that the HFACS framework bridges the gap between theory and practice by providing safety professionals with a theoretically based tool for identifying and classifying human errors. In HFACS, factors in higher level affect factors in lower levels.

The development of cities or regions can have different forms. Great advance in technology of the last millennium pushed the world forward by enormous leaps. But by the time, also negative effects of this progress had shown up, and they are getting into the awareness of society by already changing the Earth. And according to authorities, for example from NATO, in the future such effects may become serious problems for population, as well as for the whole ecosystem. Those might be air pollution, global warming, population growth, and so on [1]. All of these changes lead to calls for innovative solutions of improvement, that would bring sustainability of mankind and nature along. There is an effort to find possibilities, that will keep society moving forward, but at the same time they will try to minimalize or eliminate risks and damage towards society and ecosystem. From this philosophy comes up the term of sustainable development. According to National strategy of long-term sustainable development of Slovak Republic it means such development, that ensures the possibility to satisfy basic living needs of generations of today and those to come, while the diversity of nature is not harmed, and natural functions of ecosystems are preserved [2]. However, from our point of view, concerning only the basic living needs is not the way we should see the future. We see it as a chance to grow, to improve our lives, even to afford luxury, but all in the safe, harmless way, described above by the strategy. Technologies, that enable sustainable development in cities and their application are matters of the Smart City concept. In introduction to Smart City concept we need to answer some basic questions. First of all: what is the goal of this concept? We can say that the goal is to transform cities of today into smart cities, enabling sustainable development in the future. That leads us to another question: what makes the city „smart“? Many authorities are trying to answer this question. Examples, which affected our work and views, are mainly Caragliu, Mohanty, Kumar, Finka and Fedorov. But the one, explicit definition is not agreed yet. Studied definitions of Smart Cities are general descriptions, mentioning various priorities, from the use of technology to smart use of natural sources [3, 4, 5, 6, 7].

مقاله سال 2016

Safety has always been the most significant issue for the operation of civil aviation units (CAU). In recent years, with the widely promotion of safety management system (SMS) in civil aviation, the operation of safety performance has brought new task and challenge to the CAUs (International Civil Aviation Organization, 2013). An SMS defines measurable performance outcomes to determine whether the system is truly operating in accordance with design expectations and not simply meeting regulatory requirements. In SMS, the safety performance indicators (SPIs) are used to monitor known safety risks, detect emerging safety risks and to determine any necessary corrective actions. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) publishes the performance and accountability report every year (Federal Aviation Administration, 2014). European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (Eurocontrol) annually releases the performance review report on the assessment of air traffic management (ATM) in Europe (Eurocontrol, 2014). The FAA and Eurocontrol also jointly provide the comparison of ATMrelated operational performance of U.S. and Europe yearly (FAA & EUROCONTROL, 2014). In the academic field, Luo developed the risk assessment model and procedures for ATM (Luo et al., 2009a, 2009b). Shyur proposed a quantitative model for aviation safety risk assessment, where the model used data on both accident and safety indicators to quantify the aviation risk which are caused by human errors (Shyur, 2008). Lee developed a quantitative model for assessing aviation safety risk factors as a means of increasing the effectiveness of safety risk management system by integrating the fuzzy linguistic scale method, failure mode, effects and criticality analysis principle (Lee, 2006).

In spite of plenty of standards, specifications and papers on SMS released by civil aviation organizations and scholars, these documents mainly focus on hazard identification and risk control, lacking of a detailed method for CAU’s SPI monitoring and safety performance measurement. In this paper, a specific method is proposed for safety performance measurement based on the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and Delphi method, called the DAHP model, providing the basement for CAU’s safety management. The remaining of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the DAHP model is described in detail. Then, Section 3 describes the standards for the SPI monitoring and measurement, and in Section 4, a case is discussed on the safety performance process of a regional CAU in China. Some conclusions close the paper in Section 5.