Abstract

     An individual’s health is one of the essential aspects of life, but due to the limited technology at health care centers, many people face various restrictions during their treatment. These days, Internet-of-Things (IoT) is the most fascinating topic that provides solutions to these limitations in various ways. The IoT is utilized in various healthcare conducts that include detection, treatment, and monitoring of diseases. Wearable devices are a part of IoT that is proposed for helping patients to get the correct treatment. The conventional communication networks developed for humans-based applications face many issues like stringent latency, restricted computing capability, and short battery life. On the other hand, the onset of 5G has developed a new set of technologies that offer the vital “backbone” for connecting to the billions of devices for the upcoming IoT that would completely modify our professional and private lives. Due to the data capabilities, intelligent management, and superfast connectivity of 5G, this network has enabled new health care opportunities that include treatment, data analytics, diagnostics, and imaging. In the current review, a systematic literature survey of IoT, IoT-based wearable devices, and the role of 5G in IoT for healthcare is described in detail. Furthermore, we have explained the usage of wearable devices in detecting the issue in terms of healthcare, such as curing, monitoring, and detection of disease. Nevertheless, this review article also emphasizes the employment of IoT architecture and its wearable devices in addition to the upcoming research challenges related to this area.

Introduction

     With the increase in the advancement of technology, the demand for comfort and accessibility is also increasing, leading to an increase in the development of funding programs. Usually, it has been observed that many city hospitals lack to fulfil certain medical requirements of the patients, and therefore, patients have to search in other cities/move to other countries’ hospitals to complete their desired medical needs (Surantha et al., 2021). These days, the Internet-of-Things (IoT) in healthcare has become one of the latest trending subjects and has been found as a promising characteristic to improve the current technologies that lower its cost in each aspect of healthcare. Moreover, the IoT in biomedical is considered as the need of an hour that is required to provide medical aid to humans for monitoring, managing, detecting, and taking action from the system after receiving data, thereby effectively reducing the cost of health expenses (Khan et al., 2018). IoT is the sub-category of a computer having sensors, microcontrollers, and transceivers that are interconnected to provide information to aid the user with detailed information. It is applied in various healthcare means, including detection of disease as a precaution, monitoring disease as a self-healing route, and treating disease as the healing solution (YIN et al., 2016). Wearable devices are a part of IoT that have been developed for helping people to get the correct treatment. The IoT-based wearables are smart devices that could be worn with external accessories, tattooed or even adhered on the skin, implanted in the body, or embedded in garments and clothing.

Conclusion and prospects

     With the advancement in science and technology, the accessibility of healthcare has now become easy and affordable. But, many city hospitals lack the desired medical requirements, and therefore, the introduction of biosensors has eased these problems. Moreover, these days, the Internet-of-Things (IoT) in healthcare has become one of the latest trending subjects and a promising characteristic to improve the current technologies that lower its cost in each aspect of healthcare. IoT has become the need of the hour as it is useful for monitoring, managing, detecting, and taking action from the system after receiving data, thereby effectively reducing the excess cost of health expenses. Wearable devices are a part of IoT that have been developed to help patients get the correct treatment. These IoT-based wearables devices are considered smart devices that could be worn with external accessories tattooed or even adhered to on the skin, implanted in the body, or embedded in garments and clothing. These smart devices can link with the internet for collecting, sending data, and receiving information for making smart decisions. These wearables have become a vital fragment of IoT technology, and their growth is shifting towards more specialized and practical utility from simple accessories.

I- Introduction

II- Device Structure

III- Results And Discussions

IV- Conclusion

References

Abstract

In this work, we have proposed a charge plasma based doping less double gated tunnel FET (DLDGTFET) based biosensor using dielectric modulation with a cavity introduced at the source side for the label free sensing of the biomolecules. These biomolecules are immobilized in the cavity region to induce drain current. The sensing of the biomolecules is based on the drain current of the device while the drain current is based on the dielectric constant and the interfacing charges of the biomolecules. The cavity length is varied between 25 nm and 30 nm and different dielectric constants have been used. The expansion of the cavity length results in slight reduction of the drain current due to lowering of the capacitance. Higher dielectric constants result in better drain current values which leads to an increase in the sensitivity of the device. The maximum sensitivity attained was as high as 1.0×1010. As compared to other transistors, DLDGTFET provides better sensitivity as a biosensor and also the leakage current is low.

INTRODUCTION

LATELY, the field of biosensors has been growing due to its wide range of applications ranging from medical [1] to environmental and agricultural fields. Biosensors based on FETs have been studied due to their various advantages such as low cost and their ability to detect charged biomolecules. FET-based biosensors were popular due to their performance in label-free detection of the biomolecules [2]. Despite being a low cost device, FET based biosensor did not had much applications due to their inability of detecting neutral charged particles. Later on, the dielectrically modulated FET based biosensors were imported to detect both charged and noncharged biomolecules [3]. A cavity was introduced under the gate to immobilize the biomolecules and determine the outcome on the basis of dielectric constant and drain current [4]. The immobilization of the biomolecules causes the electrical parameters to modulate and form a biosensor. However, it has some drawbacks such as scaling, power supply, short channel effects (SCEs) [5, 6], etc.

Melatonin, the ‘chemical signal of darkness’, is responsible to regulate biological rhythms and different physiological processes. It is mainly produced by the pineal gland as a hormone in a rhythmic daily basis, but it may also be synthesized by other tissues, such as immune cells, under inflammatory conditions. Its abnormal circulating levels have been related to several diseases such as type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease and some types of cancer. Currently, melatonin is exclusively quantified by ELISA or radioimmunoassays, which although are very sensitive techniques and present low detection limits, usually require specialized personal and equipment, restricting the tests to a limited number of patients. To overcome such limitations, we developed a novel easy-to-use electrochemical immunosensor for rapid melatonin quantification. Anti-melatonin antibodies were immobilized into Indium tin oxide (ITO) platforms using (3- Aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES), 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC) and N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) crosslinkers. The platforms were assayed with synthetic and biologically-present melatonin containing samples. The developed device displayed a linear response in the concentration range from 0.75 to 7.5 µmol/L and a limit of detection of 0.175 µmol/L using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) (R2=0.989) and 0.513 µmol/L using Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) (R²=0.953) for synthetic melatonin. Furthermore, the sensors exhibited a good stability and reproducibility (3.45% and 2.87% for EIS and CV, respectively, n=3), maintaining adequate response even after 30 days of assembly. On biologically-present melatonin-containing samples the device displayed a similar performance when compared to ELISA technique (deviation of 13.31%). We expect that the developed device contributes significantly to the medical area allowing precise and complete diagnosis of the diseases related to abnormal levels of melatonin.

Introduction

Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxy tryptamine) is an indoleamine present in most biological interfaces. In several species, melatonin plays important roles as a hormone and it is believed that its biological signaling is one of the oldest existing in nature.1 In humans, melatonin biosynthesis is rhythmically active in the pineal gland. Some other tissues, which includes the retina and gastrointestinal tract, may also synthesize melatonin in a rhythmic manner. 2 Melatonin may also be synthesized on demand by macrophages, lymphocytes and microglia when activated by pathogens or abiotic injuries.2-4 . Under normal conditions its maximum concentration in human plasma is about 50-200 pg/mL (0.22-0.86 nmol/L) during the night and lower than 2.0 pg/mL (8.6 pmol/L) at daylight, 5-7 which is in accordance with one of its major functions: translating environmental darkness to adjust endogenous physiology. Excretion of melatonin in the urine is also a pivotal marker of melatonin bioavailability. It is noteworthy to mention that melatonin can also be found in human saliva at concentrations ten times lower than in plasma, which highlights the possibility for the development of non-invasive and sensitive methods for detection of the indoleamine in different biological fluids. The idea that melatonin is only linked to the circadian rhythms or seasonal behavior was long challenged by the scientific community. In the last decades, intense efforts have been spent in understanding the influence of this hormone in other actions and physiological systems3,8-10 . For example, studies have shown that melatonin presents a very important role on the organization of the immune response11 . In this case, the hormone derived from the pineal gland is ceased but is locally produced by defense cells and acts locally, as regulator of the immune response. Also, under inflammatory frames, nocturnal pineal melatonin suppression favors the mounting of inflammation by allowing the rolling and adherence of leukocytes as well as its vascular permeability.

Objective: Maillard advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are connected with high dry temperature food processing, color and flavor modification of food products. Oral cavity pathology is strongly influenced by dietary intake. The aim of the present paper is to update current data regarding the sources and metabolism of AGEs, their impact on oral cavity tissues, to discuss and suggest new approaches for the early diagnosis and efficient treatment of AGEs-related oral pathology. Design: This paper is a narrative review of the studies discussing AGEs and mainly the dietary AGEs (dAGEs) sources, metabolism, linkage to general diseases, and specifically the oral cavity pathology. The authors used “PUBMED” and MeSH for the finding of English written and published articles concerning AGEs. There were used the next keywords association: “advanced glycation end products- AGEs” AND “Maillard products”, “AGEs” AND “diet-related disease, “AGEs” AND “salivary biosensor”, “AGEs” AND “metabolic syndrome AGEs”, “AGEs” AND “oral pathology”, “AGEs” AND “dentin AGEs” OR “periodontal AGEs”, “AGEs” AND “diagnosis and monitoring”. The authors used free full-text articles to determine the etiology and physiopathology of AGEs, their association with general diseases and oral cavity disease, assessment methods used in biofluids and tissues, AGEs prevention and treatment approaches. Articles concerning AGEs etiology, metabolism and effect in the human body and specific implication in oral pathology were selected. There were no exclusion criteria in what concerns the study design. Studies in other language than English and articles abstracts were excluded. Criteria of inclusion were free full-text articles written in English. Equally human and animal model studies were included. Regarding the date of publication, all subjects concerning glycation products after 1953 (first published article) were included. Results: Evidence show that AGEs are responsible for inducing low intensity chronic inflammation and thereby, for initiating and/or aggravating chronic diseases. Nowadays, research has demonstrated a significant association between AGEs and dental or periodontal pathology. Moreover, salivary AGEs are consistent with the levels of AGEs in other biological fluids and are correlated with the general and oral pathology. Conclusions: Assessment of salivary AGEs could be a reliable tool for early diagnosis and monitoring diet-related disease.

Introduction

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are final products of Maillard reaction. They were discovered by Louis-Camille Maillard in 1912, while he was trying to synthesize in vitro proteins by using a high temperature reaction between amino acids and sugars (Zhang, Ames, Smith, Baynes, & Metz, 2009). In 1953, John E. Hodge published an article in which he divided the reaction and in 1986, the formation of reducing sugar-derived carbonyl products was added to the Maillard chain reaction (Hodge, 1953). It was associated with the flavor and pleasant scent of food, but also with oxidative stress production, local and general inflammation, and last but not least, mutagenic dicarbonyl compounds (Nagao, Takahashi, Yamanaka, & Sugimura, 1979). In medical research, AGEs have been associated to ROS (reactive oxygen species) increase, with consequent generation of oxidative or carbonyl stress. Thus, ROS exert negative effects resulting in inflammatory, autoimmune, diet-related diseases. Comparing to the discovery of the Maillard reaction products, the hypothesis of the implication of AGEs in periodontitis and dental pathology was founded at a later time. Several studies have revealed a strong association between the accumulation of AGEs and the occurrence or worsening of metabolic diseases. However, the routine use of AGEs salivary levels for the diagnosis or monitoring the oral diseases has not been yet reported.

The increasing demographic pressure, the climate change, and the enhanced competition for resources of the last decades made the challenge of guaranteeing suitable food worldwide even harder. To meet this requirement, farming practices have been oriented towards the indiscriminate use of resources, high-tech machinery, and chemicals for producing massive food volumes. However, this caused an abuse of soil and water, while triggering huge pollution levels in different environments and affecting human/animal wellbeing. As an example, according to the Bulletin of the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 26 million human pesticide poisonings with about 220.000 deaths occur per year worldwide [1]. Furthermore, agricultural production is responsible for 85% of global water consumption [2], becoming severely associated with negative environmental and economic impacts. Also, as highlighted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the arable lands per person expressed as hectares are been falling for 50 years because of the abuse of resources for farming applications [3]. The endangering effects of intense agriculture on the ecosystems have turned significant worries amongst environmentalists, encouraging green policies towards more sustainable farming approaches. In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) commissioned a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions with the aim of stabilizing their concentrations in the atmosphere and thus not distressing the climate system [4]. Afterward, several international agreements have been drafted, including the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Conference of Paris in 2015, for limiting global warming to less than 2 °C (3.6 °F) compared to preindustrial levels. In this context, the adoption of more sustainable agricultural practices based on a wise usage of resources without generating detriment of ecosystems become crucial. Smart agriculture involves multifarious approaches based on more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly cross-cutting technologies, including: i) nanoformulation delivery systems to improve dispersion and wettability of nutrients/pesticides, ii) sensors for fertiliser/pesticide residue analysis of soil and crop, and iii) remote sensing, yield mapping, and positioning systems for crop growth/disease control [5]. Among these technologies, nanostructured (bio)sensors are gaining momentum, being able to evaluate crop maturity and status health, detect and tune the amount of fertilisers and pesticides, and sense soil humidity to tailor irrigation avoiding water misuse.