۱- Introduction

۲- Mechanisms and conventional methods towards monitoring of drug resistance

۳- Electrochemical and Electrochemiluminescent (ECL) sensing

۴- Electrical sensing

۵- Optical sensing

۶- The role of nanomaterials for the screening of drug resistance

۷- Electrochemical nanosensor for the monitoring of drug resistance

۸- Optical nanosensors for the monitoring of drug resistance

۹- Electrochemiluminescence nanosensors for the monitoring of drug resistance

۱۰- Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Nanosensors for the monitoring of drug resistance

۱۱- Conclusion

References

Abstract

Drug resistance is worldwide health care crisis which decrease drug efficacy and developing toxicities. Effective resistance detection techniques could alleviate treatment cost and mortality associated with this crisis. In this review, the conventional and modern analysis methods for monitoring of drug resistance are presented. Also, various types of emerging rapid and sensitive techniques including electrochemical, electrical, optical and nano-based methods for the screening of drug resistance were discussed. Applications of various methods for the sensitive and rapid detection of drug resistance are investigated. The review outlines existing key issues in the determination which must be overcome before any of these techniques becomes a feasible method for the rapid detection of drug resistance. In this review, the roles of nanomaterials on development of novel methods for the monitoring of drug resistance were presented. Also, limitations and challenges of conventional and modern methods were discussed.

Introduction

Drug resistance as an emerging health concern reducing the efficiency and potency of a drug to produce effective treatment of pathogenic microorganisms or cancer and decrease overall patient survival [1]. During the cancer invasion and metastasis, large number of failures in the chemotherapy is related with the resistance of tumor cells to anticancer agents [2]. Consequently, resistance to drugs led to many other problems including toxicity and huge costs for development of new drugs [3]. In contemporary clinical practice, resistance to anticancer drugs can only be detected after long treatment periods [3]. Various mechanisms including reduced influx or enhanced efflux of drug, drug detoxification, glutathione conjugation, disrupt in DNA repair introduced for resistance against some anticancer agents like cisplatin [4]. It is important to point out that resistant to anticancer agents already exists before of chemotherapy in about half of cancer cases [3]. Thus, diagnostic tests for drug resistance in individual prior to commencing treatment with chemotherapy agents are required to predict the efficacy of chemotherapy and avoid any toxicity in normal tissues [3]. Several in vitro test analysis methods have been developed to assessment of resistance or sensitivity [5-7].