Abstract

Although knowledge drives organizational growth, limited teamwork skills have hindered effective knowledge sharing and utilization across departments and individuals in higher education institutions (HEIs). Thus, this paper develops a pertinent knowledge-intensive teamworking model for HEIs. Educational background, leadership, and social media adoption were independent variables, while knowledge acquisition, development, application, revision, and knowledge-intensive teamwork were dependent variables. Using an online questionnaire, a quantitative investigation of 918 people across different HEIs tested hypotheses based on PLS-SEM findings. Results showed that educational background, leadership, and social media adoption are integral enablers in smoothing knowledge management operations, while the synergistic combination of process phases drives teamwork. Consequently, outcomes establish foundations for fostering a continuous learning culture, accountability, and cooperation in HEIs.

Introduction

Most management and technology research has focused on the technical efficiency of social media [1]. Information technology revolutionized education over three decades ago, and more recent research has examined various impacts on the workplace, such as training and communication [2,3]. Social media adoption in higher education institutions (HEIs) depends on strategic aims, resources, and cultural factors [4]. Furthermore, the adoption of technology by HEIs is contingent on organizational strategy and differs among HEIs in the same education system [5]. The use of social media in education has drawn interdisciplinary interest [6,7] as HEIs shift communication from one-way to interactive to regularly engage stakeholders [8]. Continual society-wide communication needs frequent updates across media, especially social platforms. Different methods can shape how HEIs utilize social media as key channels, enabling stakeholder conversations. Communication frequently starts on blogging platforms and spreads across media as users access multiple integrated channels, facilitating tailored, multi-way exchanges without time barriers.

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated remote work and learning, disrupting traditional HEI teamwork models and requiring new virtual collaboration approaches [9]. This research extends knowledge management theory by examining how social media enables leadership, knowledge sharing, and co-development in virtual teams. Specifically, it provides empirical support for the knowledge management cycle model of Kang and Hau [10] by demonstrating how social media can facilitate key stages of knowledge acquisition, sharing, and revision in virtual settings. The findings reveal how social media-enabled leadership, through modeling knowledge-sharing practices and incentivizing participation, is critical for overcoming motivational barriers to collaborative knowledge activities online [11]. This paper advances the theoretical understanding of the interconnected relationships between social media adoption, leadership influence, and iterative knowledge improvement critical for virtual team effectiveness in higher education institutions. Moreover, a key contribution is providing empirical evidence on the affordances of different social media platforms for enabling specific collaborative activities in virtual HEI teams. The findings provide actionable guidance to HEI leaders on effective social media policies and professional development to optimize virtual teamwork. This research also contributes a new conceptual model of social media-enabled knowledge-intensive teamwork tailored to the HEI context.

Conclusion

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted higher education institutions, catalyzing a shift towards remote and online learning. In this context, social media has become an integral platform enabling knowledge-intensive teamwork, allowing seamless communication and collaboration regardless of location. Specifically, social media can promote the development of such teams in several key ways. Online discussions and forums can be leveraged to share information and resources, discuss ideas, brainstorm solutions, and provide feedback among team members. Video conferencing tools facilitate virtual meetings and presentations, helping members stay connected and engaged. Additionally, knowledge management systems allow the centralized sharing and accessing of documents while tracking progress – optimizing coordination. Consequently, social media facilitates effective knowledge-intensive teamwork in higher education after COVID-19 by providing ubiquitous channels for cooperation.

In conclusion, high-performing knowledge-based teams in higher education are predicated on an innovation-centric framework requiring integrated organizational and procedural alignment. Positive relationships among knowledge skill-building, leadership support, and cultural enablement underscore the need to embed holistically developmental, technological, and structural conditions that foster learning and innovative capacity at individual and team levels. Internally, sustained idea flows via cooperation enable continuous adaptation and improvement as contexts shift.

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Theoretical Background

3. Methodology

4. Results

5. Some Reflections for Further Research and Concluding Remarks

References

Abstract

     The new public management reforms have led to significant changes in higher education institutions (HEIs) regarding the management accounting and control (MAC) of these organizations. Therefore, this paper provides an overview of the main studies on MAC in these types of organizations through a systematic literature review (SLR). The PRISMA guidelines were followed, and data were collected from the Web of Science and Scopus databases. The final sample encompassed 50 articles, published between 1981 and 2020. The results show that MAC research tends to focus on management control systems and performance evaluation systems. They also suggest that, although the development and implementation of various MAC tools are crucial for HEIs, such implementation often is partial. This is due to the stakeholders’ perceptions/attitudes regarding the importance of such tools. The results also indicate that institutional theory is the most addressed one. Most of the time, HEIs implement MAC tools due to external pressures. By synthesizing the main trends in MAC, this SLR intends to provide a theoretical contribution to the literature in this research field. Several themes for further research are suggested, such as assessing the relationship between MAC and the management of “knowledge” and intellectual capital in these institutions, and addressing sustainability issues. From a practical viewpoint, HEI managers can obtain important insights to apply the most appropriate tools to their institutions.

Introduction

     In past decades, accounting ceased to have as its sole purpose the mere registration of financial transactions, becoming a strong tool to, among other things, evaluate organizations’ performance and to maximize their profitability. Management accounting (MA) emerged as a means of responding to the shortcomings of financial accounting, which focuses essentially on controlling and recording relations with third parties, variations in equity and determining the net result in a global context (Hardan and Shatnawi 2013). In the 1980s, Johnson and Kaplan (1987) noted the need for organizations to have a system that could provide information on strategic variables deemed relevant to create value. For example, the Activity-Based Costing (ABC) system, developed by Johnson and Kaplan (1987), emerged as a response to the limitations inherent in the existing systems, which were known for not being timely and rigorous. As for management control, several studies have focused on addressing the deviations between the objectives initially planned and the ones achieved. Once the deviations have been estimated, corrections must be made.

     In fact, the word “management” refers to an effective manner of using material, human, financial, information and technological resources, which are implemented to address the objectives defined in advance (El Filali and Hassainate 2018). To achieve the desired efficiency and effectiveness, management control systems (MCS) are fundamental. These systems are useful in supporting decision making, such as on changing or maintaining certain organizational activities (Guenther and Schmidt 2015).

Results

     This section is devoted to the qualitative analysis of selected articles, highlighting their contents and bibliometric features.

     4.1. Main Topics Addressed in Studies on Management Accounting and Control in HEIs

     HEIs pertain to a sector that has been experiencing considerable changes through the reforms of the new public management (NPM). In fact, during the assessment of the sample, a category emerged, encompassing several articles focused on “NPM reforms and changes in HEIs”, through management control systems (MCS) or performance evaluation systems (see Sizer 1981; Petrides et al. 2004; Chung et al. 2009; Boitier and Rivière 2013, 2016; Martin-Sardesai 2016; Visser 2016; Martin-Sardesai et al. 2019; Kallio et al. 2020).

     With regard to NPM reforms, Kallio et al.’s (2020) study aimed to understand how public sector reforms have affected the organizing of HEIs in Finland, the performance evaluation criteria and ultimately their raison d’être. On the other hand, Boitier and Rivière (2016) studied how MCS can be drivers of a new management logic in a French university, considering a context where strong institutional logic prevails. Regarding changes in HEIs, Martin-Sardesai (2016) conducted a study that aimed to explore how MCS complement institutional entrepreneurship. Similarly, Agyemang and Broadbent (2015) examined how HEIs in the UK developed MCS in response to external impositions.

Abstract

Higher Education plays a key role in developing societies’ economies through preparing successful leaders and citizens who can compete in today’s rapidly-changing labor market. Entrepreneurship education can pave the way for job creation, innovation, critical thinking, and economic growth. The aim of this study is to explore the views of higher education stakeholders about the economic, socio-cultural, and pedagogical implications of entrepreneurship education in a private international higher education institution in Egypt, namely the American University in Cairo (AUC). Moreover, the study seeks to investigate some of the obstacles and best practices of entrepreneurship education at the AUC. The study adopted a qualitative case study design to answer the study questions. Semi-structured one-on-one interviews were utilized to gather the required data. The purposeful sampling technique was utilized for selecting fourteen stakeholders from the AUC. Clark’s (1998) framework of the entrepreneurial university informed data collection and provided the lenses from which the study results were analyzed and interpreted. The study provides a clear picture and deep understanding of entrepreneurship education in higher education, its implementation practices and the challenges faced in one of the Egyptian international higher education institutions. The findings showed that there is a direct correlation between entrepreneurship and economic growth, innovation, and job-creation. Moreover, entrepreneurship education acts as a catalyst for tackling social issues and changing learners’ mindset to take risks, pursue opportunities, and become job-creators. The findings also revealed that although the AUC is considered as the best university that supports entrepreneurship and business ventures in Egypt, there is still a lot to be done to advance entrepreneurship at the AUC.

Highlights

Abstract

Keywords

1. Introduction

2. A learning activities perspective on teaching and learning with digital technology

3. Conclusion

Author contribution

Funding

References

Abstract

We propose a model of contextual facilitators for learning activities involving technology (in short: C♭-model) for both on-site and distance learning environments in higher education. The C♭-model aims at systematizing research on digital teaching and learning and offers a roadmap for future research to understand the complex dynamic of factors that lead to successful digital teaching and learning in higher education via suitable learning activities. First, we introduce students’ learning outcomes as central benchmarks of teaching and learning with digital technologies in higher education. Second, we want to focus on a major proximal factor for students’ learning outcomes and thus apply a learning activities perspective. Learning activities involving digital technologies reflect cognitive processes of students when using digital technologies and are causally connected with students’ learning outcomes. Third, we highlight several contextual facilitators for learning activities involving technology in the C♭-model: learning opportunities that result from higher education teachers’ instructional use of technology and students’ self-arranged learning opportunities involving digital technologies. Apart from these proximal facilitators, we include more distal factors, namely, higher education teachers’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes toward digital technology; higher education teachers’ qualification; students’ and teachers’ digital technology equipment; and institutional, organizational, and administrative factors.

1. Introduction

Teaching and learning with digital technologies has changed education in general and specifically higher education in many ways. Digital technologies can promote new ways of learning and can effectively contribute to the successful acquisition of knowledge and skills, especially those needed in today’s world (Hamilton et al., 2016; Puentedura, 2006). Digital technologies offer opportunities to support and enhance on-site learning (e.g., by visually representing complex procedures with digital presentations or by using audience response systems; Chien et al., 2016; Hunsu et al., 2016) and they allow for technology-enhanced distance learning (e.g., Surma & Kirschner, 2020). Whereas approaches such as blended learning and inverted classrooms (Låg & Sæle, 2019; Owston, 2013; Strelan et al., 2020) combine on-site and distance learning, other approaches focus on distance learning settings such as massive open online courses (MOOCs; Zhu et al., 2018). The use of digital technology for teaching and learning has been discussed for decades (see Tamim et al., 2011), but it has moved into the focus of broader public and political attention due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Seufert et al., 2021). During the COVID-19 pandemic, a temporary shift to distance teaching and learning occurred. This led to teaching formats such as emergency remote teaching (Hodges et al., 2020) or modifications of existing concepts such as online inverted classrooms (Tolks et al., 2020). Under these circumstances, with the COVID-19 pandemic entering the stage, institutions of higher education have faced a stress test with respect to their readiness for teaching and learning with digital technology: Higher education teachers need to successfully plan and implement digital teaching; students need to successfully make use of digital learning opportunities; and both teachers and students need an infrastructural, institutional, and organizational environment that is conducive to digital teaching and learning (see Liu et al., 2020).

1- Introduction

2- Social networks, social capital, social support and higher education outcomes

3- Method

4- Description of the studies included in the review and major themes

5- Relationship between social networks, social capital, social support and academic achievement in higher education

6- Conclusion and discussion

References

Abstract

Widening higher education participation has resulted in efforts directed towards increasing higher education access. However, inequality in higher education completion continues to exist. Social factors have been found to play an important role in academic achievement. Given the role of social factors, this article examines the academic outcomes of students from a social network, social capital, and social support perspective with a special focus on underrepresented groups in higher education. The article is based on a systematic review of literature where evidence shows that the networks of students including their family, ethnic and religious affiliations, friends, and faculty play a role in academic success. The article details a framework describing how network members of underrepresented groups complement each other with regard to resources offered and contribute to academic success.

Introduction

Widening higher education participation has gained increased political focus globally in recent years, resulting in efforts directed towards expanding higher education access (Marginson, 2016; Osborne, 2003). Indeed, these political reforms have resulted in an increase in the number and diversity of students entering higher education. For instance, in the last ten years, the enrolment of students aged 25–34 years in tertiary education has increased in all OECD countries, with some countries e.g., Australia, Czech Republic, Greece, Iceland, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland even reporting an increase of over 10% (OECD, 2018). Furthermore, previously underrepresented groups such as students from low social background are now increasingly becoming a part of the higher education system. Nonetheless, disparities in education achievement continue to exist as increased participation within these groups alone cannot guarantee academic success (Crozier, Reay, Clayton, Collinader, & Grinstead, 2008; Marginson, 2016). It is observed that first-generation learners (Müller & Schneider, 2013; OECD, 2018), those with migration background (Ebert & Heublein, 2017) are still at-risk of dropping out of university without obtaining a degree. The achievement gap between students from high and low socio-economic backgrounds can be attributed partly to the differences in family’s resources vis-à-vis finances, academic guidance or information, parental involvement or language skills (Willingham, 2012). Alongside family members, the role of peers and support groups at university also influence academic outcomes. Hossler, Schmidt, and Vesper (1999) highlight the importance of peer support in improving understanding of course materials and clarifying difficult concepts (Gallop & Bastien, 2016). Peer support and networks also determine student’s integration and acceptance in higher education institutions which subsequently affects retention and success (Gallop & Bastien, 2016; Nagasawa & Wong, 1999).

1- Introduction

2- Methodological Procedures

3- Presentation and Discussion of Results

4- Conclusions

References

Introduction

In an attempt to respond to the demands of today’s world, teachers have been abandoning the traditional model of content memorization and verification, seeking to train critical and reflexive professionals, capable of solving problems. On the educator’s side, we expect competency-oriented skills and the ability of enabling the students to participate actively in the learning process (Hoffmann & Koifman, 2013). Prosser, Trigwell and Taylor (1994) defined two major types of approaches to teaching: Conceptual Change/Student-Focused” (CCSF) and “Information Transmission/Teacher-Focused” (ITTF). The approaches to teaching are constituted by an intention (conception) and a strategy (Prosser & Trigwell, 2000). In a perspective of knowledge transmission, teaching is typically associated with a content approach, in which students are regarded as passive receivers of knowledge. In that context, learning consists of remembering and reproducing the right answers or solutions, and/or memorizing facts. In contrast, teaching viewed as knowledge facilitation is typically linked to a learning approach to teaching (Kember & Kwan, 2000). In this kind of approach, the aim is to change and challenge the students’ concepts with respect to learning, and the latter is seen as a process in which students construct their own understanding. The focus is on insight, critical thinking and knowledge application. It was based on this complex relationship between teaching approaches focused on the students and deep learning that we elaborated the following research question: “Which are the strategic teaching orientations that promote conceptual change in the higher education student?”

Firms need to open up their boundaries to attain valuable knowledge from external partners because external partners can support their innovation activities by providing knowledge and resources. In this context, higher education institutions (HEIs) are an important source of innovation. Yet, despite the importance of universities, this topic has received scant academic attention. Thus, this research examines the effect of specific activities supported by universities on the innovation outcomes of firms. The study also investigates the moderating role of a firm’s absorptive capacity in the relationship between universities’ involvement and firm innovation outcomes. The findings show that specific types of HEI activities positively affect a firm’s innovation performance, while absorptive capacity has differential effects on the relationships between HEI activities and firm innovation outcomes.

Introduction

Shorter innovation cycles, the huge cost of research and development (R & D), and a dearth of resources compel firms to search for new innovation sources (Gassmann & Enkel, 2004). Extant research argues that firms need to open up their boundaries to attain valuable knowledge from external partners so that they can extend the innovation function beyond their own walls (Song, Kim, & Kang, 2016). In this context, research identifies universities, or higher education institutions (HEIs), as an important source of innovation (e.g., Lambert, 2003). Indeed, by focusing on technology transfer that underlies the process of the commercialization of science, universities undertake a third mission in addition to their core missions of research and teaching (Etzkowitz, Webster, Gebhardt, & Terra, 2000), benefitting firms by such collaborations. While the risk of opportunism is inherently embedded in relationships with HEIs, the support HEIs provide firms cannot be imitated by competitors because of the novelty and uniqueness of the devised ideas. Despite the important role of universities, academic research does not devote systematic theoretical attention to the topic. Ironically, in terms of knowledge transfer for firm innovation, research examines university and industry links less frequently than those with other sources (e.g., suppliers, customers) and value them less (Hughes, 2011).

In 2013 this journal published the paper ‘Integrity in Higher Education Marketing: A typology of misleading data-based claims in the university prospectus.’ It argued that UK universities were using data and statistics in a misleading way in their advertising and proposed a nine-part typology to describe such claims. The present paper describes the subsequent responses in national media and academic writing. It then analyses recent developments in the regulation of university marketing in the UK, where the Advertising Standards Authority has publically rebuked universities and issued new guidance. Rulings against six UK universities are analysed and the paper considers the extent to which the new guidance addresses the nine types of misleading claims. The paper goes on to consider how issues such as this come to be addressed by regulators and what incentives will encourage universities to ensure the integrity of their marketing.

Media response

Times Higher Education, generally known simply as THE, is published weekly in London and reports on all aspects of international higher education. Following the publication of the 2013 paper, the author drew it to the attention of the editor of THE who then assigned a reporter to look at the story. The following week THE made the paper their lead article, featured on the front page and covered over two pages inside under the headline ‘Rosy prospectuses ‘misleading’ students’ (Mathews, 2014a). THE also publishes a weekly ‘audio podcast’ in which contributors discuss topics from the week’s news. The ‘misleading claims’ paper was a lead item of the week’s podcast. The back page of THE traditionally carries a satirical page written by a popular ‘media academic’ which describes events at the fictional ‘University of Poppleton.’ The subsequent edition of the University of Poppleton News described this establishment defending itself against accusations of misleading information in its prospectus and referenced the ‘misleading claims’ paper (Taylor, 2014). Interestingly, THE chose to go further than the original paper. The paper had not named the universities in the research sample ‘because any shortcomings identified in the integrity of these prospectuses are likely to be found more widely across the sector. As such, it seems unfair to name (and potentially shame) those institutions that were randomly selected for study.’ However THE was able to match quotations in the paper to online prospectuses and thereby identify three of the universities in the sample. THE contacted the three universities to ask for a response. One explained that the misleading claim was ‘an error of attribution’ and would not be used again; one said that in future it would source all its data from the official Unistats website and one declined to comment on the grounds that ‘…the author recognised that it was unfair to name – and potentially shame – those institutions that were randomly selected.’ The following week THE again made the paper a lead story. This time they focussed on the author’s suggestion that: ‘The two bodies with regulatory responsibilities in the field, Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) and Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, (QAA), do not take a proactive approach and have limited impact on the accuracy of university marketing materials.’ Under the headline ‘Are questionable marketing claims slipping past the watchdogs?’ THE contacted the two regulators to seek their response to the suggestion (Mathews, 2014b). A spokeswoman for the Advertising Standards Authority responded: ‘The ASA relies largely on the public to bring misleading advertising to its attention. Although in areas such as gambling and alcohol advertising it proactively looks for problems without waiting for complaints, university marketing is not one of those priorities.

The tourism sector has become an increasingly important driver of growth and prosperity for many countries. Given the comparatively low contribution of the tourism sector to the economy in Vietnam, an in-depth exploration of industry aspects is worthwhile to consider. This study explored factors influencing effective hospitality higher education in Vietnam that support the on-going development of the industry through the availability of quality human resources. The study involved 26 in-depth interviews with industry professionals, hospitality academics, and hospitality undergraduate students. Three factors were identified, including (1) the current employment demand in the Vietnamese hospitality industry, (2) the suitability of hospitality programs in preparation for hospitality careers, and (3) the reality of Vietnamese hospitality workplaces for higher education students. The findings of this study provide insights into the current status of hospitality higher education in Vietnam, and offer evidence-based insights into key factors influencing contributions of higher education to an expanding hospitality industry.

Introduction

International hospitality and tourism has been widely recognised as a fast-growing, labour-intensive industry (Korpi & Mertens, 2004) that has the potential to make a significant economic contribution (Crotti & Misrahi, 2015; Truong, 2006). The interactions between tourists, and hospitality and tourism industry personnel, are an integral part of the tourist’s total experience, and thus a critical element of success. These interactions typically take place in hotels, resorts, other lodging enterprises, and restaurants, which collectively constitute the hospitality industry. A key factor behind the success of the hospitality industry is the availability of high quality personnel to deliver, operate and manage tourist products. One key role of hospitality education is to support the profession, requiring a close partnership between the hospitality industry and education providers (Tesone & Ricci, 2005; Zopiatis & Constanti, 2007). Through such a partnership, industry needs can be identified and addressed, via the provision of skilled staff with appropriate educational qualifications (Smith & Cooper, 2000). A competitive education system must response to the needs and expectations of those involved, including industry employers, students, and educational providers (World Tourism Organisation [WTO], 2004). In Vietnam, given the comparatively low contribution of the hospitality and tourism sector to the economy, namely 4.6% of 2013 GDP (Crotti & Misrahi, 2015), a more in-depth exploration of aspects of the industry are worthwhile to consider. The hospitality industry in Vietnam is in an early stage of development, as is the education system that supports it. As the hospitality and tourism industry is by nature labour-intensive, one such aspect which exerts a major impact on the services delivered by the industry, is human resources. The potential economic contribution of the hospitality and tourism sector in Vietnam is well recognised (Crotti & Misrahi, 2015), with the current human resources preparation identified as a limitation (Ha, 2012). Widespread concern has been expressed in the literature with regard to graduates’ lack of skills and poor preparation for the workplace (Bodewig et al., 2014; Montague, 2013; Pham, 2008; Tran & Swierczek, 2009; Tran, 2013). Tran and Swierczek (2009) explored employers’ needs and assessed graduate quality and skill delivery in university courses. Results indicated that graduate quality and skill delivery were reported to be generally below standard, with a particular concern focused on interpersonal skills for effective teamwork. Interpersonal skills, problem-solving skills, and learning attributes were found to be the most three important qualities assessed by the industry employers. In a 2010 study, Nguyen and Robinson interviewed managers across industries and found that Vietnam has experienced an oversupply of low-level labour, at the expense of an adequate supply of skilled workers and managers.

The production and consumption of food has far reaching impacts that affect all facets of society, including the environmental, individual and public health (Reisch et al., 2013) and social justice (Raynolds, 2012). The way in which food is produced and distributed directly contributes to a range of environmental problems including climate change (Smith and Gregory, 2013), water pollution, water scarcity (UN-Water, 2007), loss of soil fertility and erosion (Pimentel and Burgess, 2013) and reduction in biodiversity (Brussaard et al., 2010). Food consumption is also intrinsically linked to health, and currently, 795 million people globally suffer from hunger or an under consumption of food (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Fund for Agricultural Development and World Food Programme, 2015). Concurrently, in most industrialised countries, 1 to 1.5 billion people are overweight and diet- and lifestyle-related diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases are on the rise, even appearing in young age groups (Commission of the European Communities, 2007), which significantly increases the burden on the health system (Colagiuri et al., 2010). In addition, social injustice in the global food system is a major issue with exploitation occurring throughout the agri-food system (Allen, 2008). In response to this issue, the fair trade movement arose to contribute to sustainable development by ensuring better trading conditions and working to secure the rights of marginalised producers and workers (World Fair Trade Organization, 2014). Increasingly, more and more people are starting to consider such impacts when purchasing food. For example, consumers are becoming more and more health conscious, with the global sales of health and wellness products predicted to reach a record high of US $1tn by 2017 (Hudson, 2012), and the demand for fair trade goods is also increasing (Raynolds, 2012). Consumers have also become more concerned about the environmental credentials of their food in recent decades, illustrated by the sharp rise in the availability of food produced from alternative agricultural practices and local distribution practices such as farmers markets (Pelletier et al., 2013). The increase in farmers markets in recent times across industrialised countries certainly demonstrates the growing interest in supporting a sustainable food system. As an example, in Australia, the number of farmers markets more than doubled between 2004 and 2011 (Er et al., 2012). Consumer research has shown that young people may be more willing than older individuals to pay extra for sustainable goods (The Nielson Company, 2015). However, as more than two thirds of Australian university students are worried about their finances (Bexley et al., 2013), the willingness of this cohort to spend extra on products with greater environmental credentials may be questionable.

We live at a time when we are being surrounded by an enormous amount of advertising messages, most of which we do not even notice. The market is over-saturated with lots of products and services, which on a daily basis are being pushed into the attention of potential customers. Suhányi (2011) states that in most cases, the competitive advantage does not lie only in a quality product or a great idea, but it is actually marketing and an optimal use of its tools that can on a decisive level decide about the success or failure of a product or service in the market. There are authors who point out that higher education institutions should be marketed more and also managed more like corporate brands (Schüller & Chalupský, 2012). Whelan & Wohlfeil (2006) and Maringe & Carter (2007) state that university managers and academics have to consider the marketing not as an alien concept imported from the business world, but as both a viable philosophy and strategy for developing an higher education sector which meets the needs of home-based and international customers. With regards to this topic, many authors specialise in emarketing communication tools, where the main focus is on website evaluation, e.g. Bauer & Scharl (2002); Nielsen (2000); Rovňák (2010). Their research focuses on improving the quality of websites and on the possibilities of the use of e-marketing tools for marketing communication. A number of authors concentrate on these issues, such as Castro, Marcos & Caceres (2004); Kaplan & Haenlein (2010); Dekker (2007), Lewis et al. (2008); Krombholz et al. (2012); Durkasree & Ramesh (2011); Huttmanová & Synčáková (2009); Otim & Grover (2006); Parasaruman & Zinkhan (2002); Rajnoha et al. (2013). Based on the above and on research carried out in this field, the aim of this paper is to describe specific aspects regarding the use of e-marketing tools as a factor influencing the perception of the image of a higher education institution among its target groups.

2. Theory

After a long period of exclusive focus on traditional media, public relations have thanks to the Internet become real relations with the members of the public, where various forms of on-line content allow the organisations to communicate directly with the consumers (Scott, 2010). The Internet has become a key, or one could say a strategic weapon: this is significant given the current hyper-competitive environment, which simultaneously raises the question of its reliability (Davidavičienė & Tolvaišas, 2011; Aladwani, 2006). The significance of online marketing is currently increasing, as we can observe changes in the ways people communicate and also in the ways they spend their free time. The advantage of the Internet as a communication medium likewise lies in the fact that it allows us to target the conveyed information at a precisely specified audience segment (Phillips, 2009). These facts seem important from the perspective of their use in public relations activities not only in the business sphere, but also in academic environment. Watson & Noble (2007) state that public relations in an online environment are mainly about convincing the public to use this medium to make positive comments about the organisation’s products or services. Unlike the off-line environment, the nature of the Internet provides a possibility to quickly connect without any geographical constraints groups of people who are interested in discussing the organisation and its parts.